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GEAMMAE
OP THE
SPANISH LANGUAGE
Companion Volume to the present Grammar.
DEL MAE'S SPANISH HEADER:
Modelos de Literatnra Espanola,
OB,
CHOICE SELECTIONS FEOM THE MOST CELEBRATED
SPANISH WRITERS,
From the 15th Centttry to th€ present day.
WITH A SKETCH OF SPANISH LITERATURE,
AND EXPLANATORY NOTES.
12mo. (vii. 298 pp.) Cloth, 5s.
■'X>^
A COMPLETE
THEORETICAL AND PEACTICAL
GRAMMAR
OF THB
SPANISH LANGUAGE
BY
EMANUEL DEL MAR.
EtnelftJ iEuiti0n.
LONDON :
DAVID NUTT, 2 7 0, STRAND,
1886.
1^" A Key to the Exercises in this Grammar may be had
separately. Price 3s. 6d.
PREFACE.
The very favourable reception given to tlie former Edi-
tions of this Grammar of the Spanish Language has
induced the Publisher to offer to the Public this
Ninth and Enlarged Edition. The whole arrange-
ment of the work is the result of the unremitting
labour of thirty years of the Author, and of his long
experience in teaching the Spanish Language ; and the
best proof of the preference given to this Grammar is
the fact that eight editions of it have been sold almost
entirely xmaided by advertisements.
In every division of this work it has been the Author's
aim to endeavour, as far as practicable, to overcome
every obstacle that the Spanish Language presented to
the student, and to make every difiGiculty subordinate to
rule ; thus rendering the acquisition of this rich, expres-
sive, and manly Language a pleasing task to those
desirous of acquiring it. The principles of the Spanish
Language will be found in this Grammar clearly ex-
pounded in a Series of Leottjres, and each Bule and
Observation accompanied by appropriate Examples; the
Yl FREFACB.
greater part of those intended to elucidate the pecaliar
construction and genius of the Spanish Language have
been selected from the works of the best Castilian
writers. The Lectures are followed by suitable Exer-
cises for the pupil to practise the Eules upon ; a Key to
which, for the convenience of those who have not the
assistance of a master, may be had separately.
The latest decisions of the Eoyal Academy of
Madrid, especially with respect to the New Ortho-
graphy, have been adopted in this Grammar, carefully
pointing out wherein the new differs from the old, in order
that the learner, in reading Spanish works not printed
with the new orthography, may know in what the differ-
ence consists.
In describing, by comparison with English characters,
the peculiar sound and power of the letters of the Spanish
Alphabet, the Author has bestowed the utmost care in
giving such combinations as could best convey the nicest
and most correct idea of them; and experience has proved
that he has not been unsuccedeful.
The Rules given in this Grammar are not intended to
be learnt by heart ; it is the sense of them that the pupil
should endeavour to make himself perfectly acquainted
with. The Lectures, therefore, address themselves to
the understanding rather than to the memory of the
learner.
PEEFAC3B. Vll
When the pupil has made himself acquainted with the
Elements of the Spanish Language, and should desire to
attain a more intimate knowledge of its origin, extent,
power, and elegance, he is recommended to consult the
works of Capmany, Aldrete, Nebrija, Huerta, and
others. As works from which to glean the beauties of
Spanish Literature, he has a wide field to select from ;
he may, however, peruse the following Authors with
advantage ; —
In History, SoLis, Mariana, Capmany, Menpoza,
Llorente, etc. — In Novels and other works of Fiction,
Cervantes, Isla, Mateo Aleman, Guevara, Qtjevedo,
ZoLORZANO, etc. — In Sacred, Moral, and Ecclesiastical
Writings, Granada, Leon, Clement, Nieremberg,
Carvajal, etc. — In Drama, Calderon, Lope de Vega,
Cervantes, Jovellanos, Cienpuegos, Montalban,
QuiNTANA, Moratin, Zarate, etc. — In Epistles, Works
of Criticism, and Miscellanies, Cadalso, Iriarte,
Gracian, Campomanes, Saavedra Fajardo, Sama-
NiEGO, etc.
In Poetry, the field is still more extensive ; a list of
the bare names of Spanish Poets of merit would fill a
moderate sized book. The student may, however, select
from the following : — Calderon, Cervantes, Lope de
Vega, JaureguI, Argensola, Qtjeyedo, Garcilaso de
LA Vega, Herrera, Eroilla, Luzan, Iglesl^s,
Melendez, Mendoza, Leon, etc.
TIU PREFACE.
The acqnisition of the Spanish language is daily
becoming of greater importance; in addition to its
now being acknowledged a very essential branch of a
mercantile education, it is become almost indispensable
to the tourist, and its interest in a literary point of
view is rapidly increasing, in proportion as the works
of the more celebrated Spanish writers become more
extensively known to the English public, and more
justly appreciated.
CONTENTS.
MOT. PAB. »AO«.
1. 1, Grammar in General ••••••• 1
7. The Alphabet 2
Sound and Power of Letters 3
11. Diphthongs and Triphthongs , • . . 9
2. 1. The Accent 10
9. Punctuation 12
8. 1. Etymology 13
3. Definitions of the Parts of Speech ^ . ib.
14. Syntax 16
4. 1. Etymology and Syntax of Articles . . . 18
2. The Definite Article ib.
5. 1. The Indefinite Article 30
6. 1. The Neuter Article 34
7. 1. Etymology and Syntax of Nouns. — Num-
ber 36
7. Augmentative and Diminutive Nouns . 39
13. Gender of Nouns 40
8. 1. Case 49
13. Observations on the Employment of the
Preposition A in the Accusative Case . 54
Declension of Nouns 56
14. Construction of Nouns . . . . . . . 58
9. 1. Etymology and Syntax of Adjectives . . 62
Agreement with the Noun ib.
10. 1. Situation of the Adjective 69
11. 1. Degrees of Comparison 73
12. Numeral Adjectives 83
13. 1. Prepositions employed with Adjectives . 89 ,
14. 1. Etymology and Syntax of Pronouns . . 93 '
3. Declension of Personal Pronouns , . . ib.
z ooirrENTa
UOZ> PAB. Pi (■,
14. 8. Personal Pronouns in the Nominative
Case 97
14. Personal Pronouns in the Dative and Ac-
cusative Cases 99
21. Personal Pronouns in the Genitive and
Ablative Cases 102
22. Observation on the Second Personal Pro-
noun, and the employment of Find. . 105
15. 1. Possessive Pronouns 106
16. I. Demonstrative Pronouns 112
17. 1. Relative Pronouns 116
18. 1. Interrogative Pronouns 120
19. 1. Indefinite Pronouns 122
20. 1. Etymology and Syntax of Verbs . . . 130
Definition of the difi'erent kinds of Verbs ib.
14. The Conjugations 132
15. The Moods ib.
25. The Tenses 136
27. Person and Number 137
21. 1. Use and Employment of the Tenses . . ib.
28. Employment of the Terminations ra, se,
and RiA, of the Imperfect Subjunctive 147
29. On MAY, MIGHT, SHOULD, and WOULD, as
principal Verbs 150
22. 1. Etymology and Syntax of Participles . 151
23. 1. Conjugation of Auxiliary Verbs . . . 152
10. Observations on ser and estab . . . 165
24. 1. Conjugation of Begular Verbs . . . 169
4. Ancient manner of forming some of the
Tenses of Spanish Eegular Verbs . . 181
5. Formation of Reflective Verbs . . . 183
6. Formation of Passive Verbs .... 184
7. Observations on the Passive Voice . • ib.
8. Verbs used Negatively 187
9. ,, Interrogatively . . . . 188
10. Observations on the Accentuation of Verbs 190
25. 1. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs . . . 192
Irregular Verbs of the First Conjugation ib.
„ „ Second „ .195
Third „ . 202
2. Alphabetical List of all the Spanish Ir-
regular Verbs 212
CONTENTS. XI
MCT. MB. . 'AO"»
25. 3. Ancient manner of forming some of tne
Tenses of Irregular Verbs .... 222
26. 1. Impersonal Verbs 223
6. Defective Verbs 225
27. 1. Agreement of the Verb witli its Nomina-
tive 226
28. 1. Government of Verbs ...... 230
8. „ „ as relates to Moods
and Tenses 235
9. Peculiar manner of Employing certain
Verbs in Spanish and English . . . 241
29. 1. Etymology and Syntax of Adverbs • • 247
3. Of Adverbs ending in MENTE .... 251
9. Situation of the Adverb 253
10. Observation on certain Adverbs . . . 254
30. 1. Etymology and Syntax of Prepositions . 257
2. Employment of Prepositions , . . . ib.
22. Peculiar meamngs ol certain English
Prepositions, with their corresponding
translations in Spanish 263
24. Place of Prepositions 267
25. Government of Preuositions . . . . 268
31. 1. Etymology and. Syntax of Conjunctions 272
15. Peculiar meanings of certain English
Conjunctions, with their corresponding
translations in Spanish 276
32. 1. Interjections • • • 279
APPENDIX.
Of the Figures of Syntax 281
An easy method of converting a great number of
English and Latin words into Spanish . . . 284
Manner of Addressing Persons in Spanish, and the
Titles commonly used with Persons of Eank . 287
List of Abbreviations most commonly used . • 288
On Spanish Epistolary Correspondence .... 291
„ Pamiliar and Complimentary Phrases 294
Eeading Lesson for practising Spanish pronunciation 297
BPANISn AUTHORS QUOTED IN THIS GRAMMAK, AND
THE EPOCHS IN WHICH THEY WROTE.
AuDCAK. Mateo 16
Cadalso, £1 Coronel J. V 18
Calderoit db la Babca, Pedro 17
Capmany, Antonio de 18
CervImtes Saayedra, Miguel de 16
Fsijoo, P. Benito Qerunimo 17
FOBNER 16
Granada, Ft. Luis de 16
GramItica de la Real Acade^tea de Madrid . . 19
GiTEVARA, Ft. Ant. de 16
HiTA, G. Perez de 16
Iriarts. Tomas de 18
JovKixANos, Gaspcur de 19
Leon, Fr. Luis de 16
Mariana, P. Juan 16
Marina. F. M 19
Marques, Fr. J 16
MsofA, Pedro 16
Moratin. Leandro Femindei de • 19
NiEREMBERO, Pedro J. K 17
Palacios Rr^ios, Juan Lopes de 15
QuEVEDO YrLLEOAS, Fraucisco de 17
QuiNTANA, Manuel Jos^ 19
Saavedra Fajardo, Diego de 16
Salazar, Cervantes de 16
Soiis, Antonio de 17
ToRENO, El Conde de 19
Vega Carpio, Lope Feliz de 16
Veugel y Ponce 19
ViujOTTEVA, M. G. de 19
TiLLEOAS, £. Manuel 17
A COiTPLETE
TnEORETICAL A^■D PEACTICAL GRA5IMAR
OP THE
SPANISH LANGUAGE.
LECTURE I.
OF GRAilMAR IN GENERAL.
Paragraph 1. Grammar is the science that teaches the
just manner of expressing our ideas, in speaking or writing.
It is that collection of rules drawn from the established
usages of a people speaking a language with propriety
and precision. This definition explains the nature of
Grammar as applied to all languages in general : parti-
cular Grammar teaches the principles peculiar to any
particular language, as the Spanish Language ; to
obtain a correct knowledge of which we must conform
to the rules estabL"shed by the Eoyal Academy of
Madrid, and to the usages adopted by the best Castilian
writers and speakers.
Grammar is divided into fo-'ir branches — namely,
Orthography, Prosody y Etymology, and Syntax.
2. Orthography treats of the nature and use of
letters, and their various combinations as employed in
the formation of syllables and words.
3. Prosody, as a branch of Grammar, teaches the
true sound and just pronunciation of letters, syllables,
and words, and marks the syllable on which the accent,
or stress of voice, falls. Prosody treats also of the laws
of versification.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY. [lECT. I.
4. ExYMOLOtSY (or Analogy) treats of the origin of
words ; their distribution into different classes ; the rela-
tion which they bear to each other ; their derivation^
and the various clianges which they undergo in the
formation of sentences.
5. Syntax teaches the proper arrangement of words,
that our sentences may be correct, clear, free from am-
biguity or obscurity, and incapable of misconstruction.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY.
6. The Spanish Alphabet consists of twenty-eight
letters, of which a, c, i, o, u are vowels, and the rest are
consonants ; ?/, however, is generally considered a vowel
when it follows another vowel, or stands by itself ; and a
consonant when it precedes a vowel. Every Spanish
vowel has a complete and fixed sound (as pointed out
in the following alphabet), which never changes on account
of its situation in a syllable. Consonants have no distinct
sounds by themselves, but in combination with vowels
they form syllables and words. Each of the vowels may
constitute, a syllable by itself.
THE ALPHABET.
7. In the comparative sounds given in English in the
following alphabet, the vowels, whether coming before or
after a consonant, are to be sounded thus : a, like a in
ark ; e, like e in ell ; t, like t in ill ; o, like o in ode ; w,
like u in full.
The accent points out the syllable on which the
stress of voice is to be laid.
Fronounced as
A
a in ark.
B
be in bell.
C
the in theft
CH che in chess.
D
the in then.
E
e in ell.
F
ef-e.
G
he in hen, with a strong
aspiration
of the h ;
or, rather
a guttural
sovnd.
Pronounced as
H
d-tche.
I
i in ill.
J
ho-ta, with a strong
aspiration of the h ,
or a guttural sound.
K
ca in cav.
L
el-e.
LL
M
el-ye.
em-e.
N
cn-e.
en-ye.
LECT. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY.
Pronounced as
0
0 in ode.
p
Q
E
pe in pen.
coo in cook.
er-re.
S
T
esse,
te in ten.
SOTmD AND POWER OF
Fronounced m
TJ u in fwll.
V ve in vent.
X ek'is.
Y i grie-ga,
Z the'-ta.
LETTERS, ACCORDING TO THE
ORTHOGRAPHICAL ALTERATIONS RECENTLY MADE BY
THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF MADRID.
*#* An accent is placed on the acute syllable of every Spanish
word in the Examples, until the pupil arrives at Lecture II., where
the general rule for accentuation will be given.
A — as noticed in tlie alphabet, sounds like a in ark :
Example, carta, alabdr, canasta.
B — There is a very slight distinction in Spanish between
the sound of this letter and that of the v, from the
circumstance of both being pronounced much softer
than in English, though in both languages the lips
are pressed together in pronouncing the &, and the
lower lip touches the upper teeth in uttering the v ;
but the pressure employed in each letter is much
less in Spanish than in English : Ex. hdtay hebe, hieriy
hoca, bulfo, abdicdr, ohtener, vdso, vheres, voto, vulgo.
The b, in Spanish, maybe placed immediately before
I and r, which can never take place with the v : Ex.
bianco, brotdr. The h may also terminate syllables
and words ; but the v never can : Ex. absorto, ob-
tener, Job. The syllables a7n, em, im, am, urn, require
b after them ; and an, en, in, on, un, require v ; Ex.
dmUto, embudo: — env'idia, invocdr. Some writers
omit the 5 before s in certain words, and others retain
it ; thus, osGuro, or obscuro ; sustdncia, or substdn-
cia, etc.
C — before e and i is pronounced like th in theft, thin :
Ex. cena, c'lfra ; and like h when it precedes a, o,Uf
or a consonant : Ex. cdma, cola, cubo, cldro, crUico.
It has likewise the sound of k when it comes after
a vowel in the same syllable : Ex. acceder, tecnico*
SeeZ.
4 ORxnoGRAPnY and pkosodt. [lect. I.
CH— This double consonant now sounds like ch in c/^f ?«.
as noticed in the alphabet : Ex. chaldn, Uche, chico,
hecho, chupa. Formerly, in words of Hebrew and
Greek origin, it had the sound of k, when the vowel
following it was marked with the circumflex accent :
Ex. archangel, chhnica; but this practice is obsolete,
and such words are now written arcdngel, quimica.
D — is very differently pronounced in Spanish from what
it is in English ; and for want of a proper definition
of its sound in Anglo-Spanish Grammars, few learn
to pronounce it properly by them, and yet its sound
is more easily conveyed to the English ear by writing
than to any other, from the peculiar power of the
English ///. The difference of sound between the
Spanish and the English d arises from the distinct
manner in which the two nations employ the organs
of speech in pronouncing it. For instance, it is
uttered in English by striking the tongue against the
upper gums; whereas Spaniards, in pronouncing the
d, slightly touch the teeth with the tongue, as the
English do in pronouncing the th in the words ihef/,
though ; but observe carefully that its sound issues
from ih.Q chest, and is therefore never like //* in thin
or hath. This different manner of pronouncing the
d in Spanish is striking only when it immediately
follows a vowel, whether that vowel be in the same
syllable or word as itself, or in the one immediately
preceding it : Ex. todo, amddo, adjunto, cuddra, la
ddma, una dosis. But it is pronounced more like
the Englishr/at the beginning of asentence, orwhen
found immediatelypreceded by a consonant (whether
that consonant be in the same word as itself or not),
except dj or z, on account of the lisping qualities of
these two letters : Ex. Dichos del miindo, cuerda,
cdlandra, los dddos, un alferez de la ciuddd de Cordoba.
At the end of a word, however, it is almost mute,
but preserves a little of the lisp : Ex. bonddd, ardid ;^
though it is heard more distinctly in the imperative
mood: Ex. Id d cdsa — Venid conm'igo. Observe,
also, the following examples : Don Alejdndro paoo
por Madrid con dos criddos de Don Pedro. Dome
listed medio dura. Me dicron dos docenas y dos.
LECT. I.] OnTIIOGEAPHY AND PROSODY. 6
E — This vowel, as before remarked, sounds like the
English e in dl : Ex. expeler, merece, presente.
F — sounds as in English : ^ps., fdma, foroj africdno, fldco.
G — before a, o, v, or ^consonant, and after a vowel,
sounds as the English g similarly placed : Ex. gdhi
goma, gusto, grdno, gldndula, ignordr, agnddo. It
has the same sound before the diphthongs ue, ni, in
which the u is silent : Ex. guerra, guisdr. But should
the u be marked with the diseresis, the u must be
sounded : Ex. agiiero, argilir. It has a guttural
sound before e and i, nearly resembling the aspi-
ration of the English h : Ex. giro, gente. It is
silent when seen before n, in words derived from
the Greek : Ex. gnomon, gnomico ; but the g in such
words is now dropped; as nomon, nomico.
H — is now considered a silent letter by the Spanish
Academy, and is therefore not aspirated, except
when it precedes the diphthong ue ; but even then
the aspiration is very slight : Ex. hueso, huevo.
I — invariably sounds like the English i in ill : Ex.
irrisible, invadir, ctrco.
J — has always a guttural sound, like that of the gut-
tural g before described : Ex. jahon, jergon, pajita,
joven, junta, carcdj, reloj.
IL — This letter is only retained in a few foreign proper
names, and sounds as in English.
L — sounds as in English: Ex. lavdr,mal, Urio, hidnco.
LL — has a liquid sound, like the gl in seraglio : Ex.
lldve, lleydr, hullir, cahdllo, lluvia.
]\I — sounds as in English : Ex. dma, moda, comprometOf
alumna.
N — sounds as in English : Ex. ndda, nido, nildo, pan,
montdn.
N — This letter, with a waving ime over it, called the
tilde, has a liquid sound, like the English n followed
by 7/ ; or the gn in the French word seigneur, or in.
the Italian word bagiio : Ex. 7iiua, taner, compama,
senor, niTiO.
0 — sounds as the English o in ode : Ex. oponcr, tomo^
soplo.
P — sounds as in English : Ex. pdlo, dpto, plan, propio.
Its employment before h, which combination formed
6 ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY. [lECT. I.
in Spanish, as it still does in English, the sound of/,
is obsolete, the/being now used instead : ^x.j^Iiilo-
sophia, phaldnr/e, — now vfriiteiifilosofia,faldnge. It
is no longer used before s in such words as psdhnCy
pseudo, which are now written sdhno, seudo.
Q — before ue and ui sounds like k : Ex. queso, quitdr.
Before ue, ili, and ua, uo, it is used to sound like the
English q ; but this manner of spelling is laid aside,
and such words as were written questiduy qiiiddr,
quanta, quota, are now spelled cuestidn, cuiddr,
cudnto, cuota ; so that the q is, by modern writers,
only retained before ue, ui, without the direresis.
K — has sometimes arough and sometimes a smooth sound.
It has the rough sound at the beginning of a word :
Ex. rdbia, roho ; — when the syllable that precedes it
ends in a consonant : Ex. hon-ra, mal-roto, ah-rogdr,
Israel : — also when it is doubled : Ex. cdrro, hannl.
On all other occasions it has the smooth sound : Ex.
ahrir, carta, arddo, perla, pdrdo. Observe, however,
that even the smooth sound of the Spanish r is more
distinctly heard than that of the English r generally.
S — always sounds like s in the English words sinj,
us; but never like s in muse: Ex. sal, espdldas,
sitto, poso, suhir, gdstos. It is no longer used
doubled in Spanish.
T — sounds as in English: Ex. tdsa, treinta, atldntico,
tomo, tumba.
U — sounds like u in full: Ex. usura, tvibu, lugubre, urbdno.
Y— see the letter B.
X — This letter was formerly employed to express two
sounds, the one like that of ks, the other a guttural
sound, like that of the Spanish^'. This latter sound
is now abolished in the x, which, since the late de-
cision of the EoYAL Academy, is only employed to
express that of ks : Ex. axioma, exito, fenix, extremo,
oxido. Thus, all those words which were formerly
written with x to indicate the guttural sound, (which
was when it followed a vowel, or preceded one with-
out the circumflex accent,) are now written with j
before a, o, u, or after a vowel, and with g or ;
before e and i: Ex. jabon, gefe, j'lcara, cajon,
jubon, carcdj, retdj — formerly written xabdn, xefe,
LECT. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY. 7
xicara^ caxon, xiibon, carcdx, relox. And when
formerly the x immediately preceding a vowel had
the sound of ks, the vowel used to be marked with
the circumflex, as in axioma, exito ; but the cir-
cumflex is now no longer used, as we have seen
above. The x when immediately followed by a con-
sonant had likewise formerly, and still retains, the
sound of ks : Ex. exporter, mixto. Some modern
writers, until the above decision of the Academy,
exploded the x altogether, and used to write such
words as experto, extremo, with s, thus, espe'rto,
estremo ; but the Academy has properly disapproved
of the substitution : first, because it destroyed the
etymology of words without any visible utility; and,
secondly, because words of different meaning are
confounded by it; as in expidr, to expiate, and espidr,
to spy. Others, in substituting cs for x before a
vowel, as in acsioma, ecsdmen, instead of axioma,
exdmen, have introduced a still more vicious innova-
tion, since not only are the words disfigured from
their original orthography by it, but that two letters
are required to represent the sound of one imper-
fectly.
Y — as a vowel, sounds like the Spanish i: Ex. hay, ley,
voy y as a consonant it sounds rather stronger than
the English y in yes : Ex. yelo, yo, ya.
Z — sounds like th in the English words thank, hath ; but
never like th in that, bathe ; Ex. zdga, zorra, feliz,
voz. "Where this letter was formerly used before e
and i, a c is now generally preferred : Ex. cenzdlo,
citara ; formerly written zenzdlo, z'ltara.
a table, exhibiting all the peculiar changes of
sound in spanish consonants, produced by their
various combinations with vowels.
Ca, CO, cu . , . In these the c sounds like k :
ce, ci And here like th, in theme.
ac, ec, ic, oc, uc . G after any vowel sounds like k,
da, de, di, do, du . | D sounds like th in they, bathe ; but
ad, ed, id, od, ud . ) never like th in theory, bath.
8 ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY. [lECT. I.
ga, gue, gui, go, gu. In these the g sounds like the Eng-
lish hard g, and the u is muto
before e and i.
gua, giie, giii, guo. Here the g is hard also, but the u
is sounded.
ge, gi In these the g has the guttural
sound.
&g» 6&> ^o> og, ug . G after a vowel sounds like the
English hard g.
ja, je, ji, jo, ju. . "i J before and after a vowel has
aj, oj ) always the guttural sound.
Ha, He, Hi, llo, llu. These sound as lid, lie, etc. :
fia, lie, ni, no, nu . And these as nid, rac, etc.
qua, qiie, qiii, quo. Here the u is sounded :
que, qui .... And here the u is mute.
ax, ex, ix, ox, ux . The x is now only used at the end
of a syllable, and has the sound
of ks.
( Z before and after a vowel lias
za, ze, zi, zo, zu . J always the sound of th in tUin,
az, ez, iz, oz, uz . ) hath; but never that of th in
( ihey^ lathe.
OF INITIAL AND FINAL LETTERS.
8. Every consonant may begin a S^janish word or
syllable ; but the only consonants that can terminate a
word are b, d, j, I, m, n, r, s, t, Xj z; and all, except ch,
h, II, ii, q, V, may end a syllable. Either of the vowels
may begin and end a word or syllable.
OF DOUBLE LETTERS.
9. Strictly speaking there are no double letters in
Spanish, for even the II is not considered a double letter.
Two letters of the same denomination may frequently be
seen together in the same word, but then each belongs
to a different syllable, and therefore cannot be con-
sidered as a double letter. The only letters that may
be so repeated in Spanish are the vowels a, e, i, o, and
the consonants c, n, r, and when so employed each must
be distinctly heard : Ex. Sa-a-ve-dra, le-er, pi-i-si-mo,
k)-6rj ac ce so, en-no-ble-cev^ cdr-ro.
LECT. I.j ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY. 9
OF THE DIVISION OF SYLLABLES.
10. A consonant between two vowels forms a syllable
with the second vowel. When two consonants come
between two vowels, each belongs to its nearest vowel,
unless the second consonant be /, or r, in which case
they both form syllable with the second vowel : Ex. re -
la-ti-vo, ar-rd-jo, ha-bldr, a-pre-tdr. The II always goes
to the following consonant : Ex. ca-lldr, hu-lHr. From
this rule are excepted all comj^ound words, which are
divided by separating the syllable added to the simple
word ; thus, des-atendery suh-alterno ; and all those
having an s befor /, or r; thus, is-leno, Is-rael. When
three consonants come between two vowels, the first two
go to the first vowel, and the third to the second : Ex.
c6ns-ta, ohs-tdr. And when four consonants come together,
they are divided two and two : Ex. cons-tr-uir, nbs-traer.
OF DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.
IL A diphthong is the union of two vowels, and a
triphthong of three vowels in a syllable. In English in
a combination of two, or even three vowels, it frequently
occurs that the sound of one only, or a sound difi'erent
from that of either of the vowels in the combination, is
heard ; observe, however, that in pronouncing the
Spanish diphthongs and triphthongs, care must be taken
to give to each vowel the sound which it has in the
alphabet. The following is a list of all the Spanish
diphthongs and triphthongs, and to guide the student,
an accent is placed on the vowel which should have the
Lrreatest stress of voice.
di, E:
^. tom«/s.
du,
ed,
jcmla.
h«>. ^
eiered.
ei,
eo.
■ple'ito.
idon/o.
eu,
deudsi.
k
leg.
id,
ie.
ac/ago.
ci^'lo.
10, Ex.
m,
oe,
bzombo.
ce'wdad.
heroe.
6i,
so7s.
Udy
ue,
sog.
sudve.
hwe'sped
iui.
u6,
■mug.
CMo'ta.
l5
10 PEOSODY. [lECT. II,
idi, Ex. cambidi's.
iei, renunc//zs.
udi, averigwrt/s.
uei, evacweVs.
nei/j huey.
12. Observe tliat in diphthongs and triphthongs the
accent always falls on the vowel which is fii-st in the
order of the alphabet, except in the combinations of to,
and oi, in which it falls on the o.
LECTURE 11.
OF THE ACCENT.
1. The acute accent, thus ('), is emijloyed in Spanish
with words in which the stress of the voice, as
regards the syllable on which it should fall, deviates
from the general rule.
Every Spanish word has one syllable in it acute ; and,
as a general rule, let it be observed that words ending
in a consonant have the last syllable acute, and those
ending in a vowelj the last but one ; but, as there are ex-
ceptions in this rule, every word deviating from it is
always marked with the acute accent over the syllable
requiring the stress. Verbs, however, have a peculiar
accentuation of their own, which will be treated on
separately. — See Lect. 24, Par. 1 0.
Examples. — Leccion^ macis, sagaz, altar, pedestal,
corazon, redentor, encomendar, Jelicidad, moralidad, in-
demnijicacion, desacobardar.
Mente, casa, tribu, mudama, orgullo, sufrible, desarmado,
coniinente, indicativo, inconsiderado, desalumbradamente.
Docil, dmbar, cdliz, cafe, musica, epico, lirico, qmmico,
incomodo, espiritu, alegorico, escoldstico.
2. The above rule applies also to words ending in two
vowels, whether they form diphthongs or not : Ex. Diph-
tECT. II.] PKOSODY. 11
thongs — serio, affua, concordia, puntapie ; observing, how-
ever, that those ending in ea, eo, oe, must be marked
with the accent on the syllable on which the stress falls :
Ex. eterea, virgmeo, heroe. Not diphthongs — cria, rio, em-
pleo, albaceOf sarao, canoa. Those of more than two
syllables, nevertheless, ending in ia or w, are marked
with the accent : Ex. filosofia, navio.
3. Words ending in y have the stress on the las
syllable, and receive no accent : Ex. convoy^ virey.
4. Surnames ending in ez, being acute on the penult,
receive no accent : Ex. Fernandez, Martinez.
5. Words in the plural number retain the stress on
the same syllable which they would in the singular,
except cardcter, the plural of which is caracteres.
6. Adverbs ending in mente, formed from adjectives
that deviate from the general rule of accentuation, pre-
serve the accent on the same syllable as the adjectives do
from which they are derived ; as, hdrbaramente, from
hdrlaro; intrepidamente, from intrepido ; but in those
formed from adjectives that follow the general rule, the
stress falls on the first syllable of the termination mente ;
as, grandemente, from grande ; singularmente, from sin-
gular, and require no accent. All superlatives ending
in isimo receive the accent on the first syllable of this
termination ; as, lelUsimo,fertiUsimo.
7. When monosyllables have more than one significa-
tion, the accent is employed to distinguish them, thus—
tu, thou tu, thy.
67, he el, the.
mi, me mi, my.
SI, oneself, yes si, if.
se (from ser), be thou . , , se, oneself.
di (from dar), I gave . , , di (from decir), say thou.
de' ,, let him give, or he
may give de, oi or from.
o, or 0, interjection Oh.
que', what, used interroga- ) que, the relative, and
tively or in exclamation, j conjunction that,
ve (from ir), go thou ... re (from ver), he sees.
The preposition d (to), and the conjunctions e (and),
6, or u (or), are always accented.
12 PEOSODY. [lect. n.
Quej what ; quie'ny who ; cudl, which ; cudndo, when ;
cudnto, how much ; como, how; and ddnde, where, are
also accented when used interrogatively, or with admira-
tion, but not otherwise.
THE DliERESIS.
8. The dioeresis, as established by the Eoyal
Academy, is now only employed over the u of ue and uf',
when both vowels are sounded after g ; as in ogiieroj
cn-Qiiir, However, in poetry it is allowed to be used over
the first vowel of a diphthong, to add, for the sake of tlie
metre, another syllable to a word.
PUXCTTJATION.
9. The note of interrogation is employed in Spanish
both at the beginning and at the end of an interrogative
word or sentence. The one at the beginning is inverted
thus (^), and its use is to warn the reader that what
follows is a question. The same occurs with the note of
admiration, which in the like manner is used inverted
thus (i), to warn the reader ; as, g* Y saheis su casa, Sancho ?
. . . . gY haheisla visto algun dia par vcntura? (Cer-
vantes— Don Qnijote.) And do you know her house,
Sancho? .... And have you ever seen her by chance?
;Iiiteres, unico movil del corazon humano ! (Cadalso —
Noi'hes luQuhres.) Interest, sole prompter of the human
heart!
If, however, the sentence begins with a word which,
of itself, denotes its interrogative or exclamatory mean-
ing, the word so used is written with an accent (as no-
ticed before), and the inverted note is dispensed with ;
as, Cudndo vendrd ? when will he come ? Quie'n es ? who
is it ? Que ruido ! what a noise ! Qiie h.htima ! what a
pity !
The other points in punctuation are employed alike
in both languages.
LECT. ni.] •ETYMOLOGX". 13
LECTURE III.
ETYMOLOGY.
1. Tlie definition of this branch of Grrammar has been
given in Lect. 1 , Par. 4 : we have now to observe that
words are either primitive or derivative. Primitive words
are those which are not derived from any other word in
the same language : thus, naturaleza, cielo — nature,
heaven, are primitive words ; but derivative words are
those that are derived from words in the same language ;
thus, natural, celeste — natural, heavenly.
2. The words of a language are comprehended under
difi'erent classes, called parts of speech — namely, articles,
nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, parf/c//;/^^, adverbs,
p?-eposttions, conjunctions, and interjections ; therefore,
every word in a language must belong to one or the
other of these classes.
GENERAL DEFINITIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
3. Articles are words which by themselves have no
meaning, but are put before nouns to point them out.
They are either definite or indefinite. A definite article
refers to some particular noun or nouns in a sentence ;
as, The letters that are in the desk : but an indefinite article
refers to an undefined thing of the kind indicated by
the noun ; as, A man brought me a letter.
4. Nouns or Substantives express the name of any-
thing in existence, whether animate or inanimate, ma-
terial or ideal : anything that can be fdt, heard, or
conceived in the mind, is a noun ; as, tTohn, house, city,
London, horse, music, wind, wisdom, love, hatred, pleasure,
(jrief, memoru, time, virtue, etc.
Nouns are of two kinds — nSiViiQlj, common and proper.
A noun common embraces within its signification every
object of the same species as itself; as, man, booh, star,
'province, river, etc. : — there are many men, stars, pro-
vinces, rivers, etc., but these names are applied to them
in common ; but nouns proper refer only to particular
14 ETYMOLOGY. [lECT. III.
persons and places, and to individual objects, a,iiWinias.i,
Ellerij Paradise, Madrid, the Tfunnes, the Atlantic, etc.
5. Adjectr-es are words that express some c^ararter,
quality/, 2')roj)erty, dimension, or appearance, of a noun ; as,
a good man, fine cloth, the hard iron, a large house, the dark
clouds. Here the adjective good expresses the character
of the noun man ; fine, the quality of the cloth ; hard, the
propei'ty of the iron ; large, the dimension of the house ;
and dark, the aj)pearance of the clouds.
6. Pronouns are words used in the place of nouns,
to avoid their frequent repetition. "Without this pai't
of speech discourse would be rendered tedious, from
the necessit}^ of repeating every noim, the place of
which these pronouns supply. For instance, in the
sentence, Henry gave the letter to Mary, hut she returned it
to him, and he put it into his pocket, were it not for the
pronouns she, it, him, he, it, his, we should be obliged to
repeat every noun, the place of which the pronouns
supply. There are several kinds of pronouns, the
nature and use of which will be explained in their ety-
mology and syntax.
7. Verbs are words that denote existence and action.
They describe the various states of being of things,
animate and inanimate, material and ideal, and all the
diCferent actions attributable to these. The verbs to be,
to sit, to sleep, to stand, etc., describe various states in
which objects may be found to exist ; to icrite, to break,
to strike, etc., denote actions of the body ; and to think,
to love, to grieve, etc., are operations of the mind, A verb
is very properly considered the essential word in a sen-
tence, since no phrase, however short, can be formed
without a verb expressed or understood. The different
species of verbs that exist in language will be treated
on in their etymology and syntax.
8. PATtTiciPLES are words so called from their par-
taking of the natuTe of verbs, nouns, and adjectives. There
are two participles, the one caMed present, or active; the
other pas/, or passive. In its capacity of a verb the
participle present denotes action and being ; as, He is
writing, She was standing. And the participle past,
when joined to any part of the auxiliary verb to have,
forms the compound tenses of the verb it represents ; as,
LECT. III.] ETYMOLOGY. 15
/ have walled; and joined to any part of the verb to he,
they together form the passive voice ; as, She is esteemed :
all which and also the employment of participles as
nouns and adjectives will be fully explained in their
etymology and syntax.
9. Adverbs are words employed with verbs, adjec-
tives, and sometimes with adverbs themselves, to modify
their meaning. When employed with reference to verbs,
they describe the manner of their being or acting, or
some circumstance attending these; as, He is ill; in
which the adverb ill expresses a circumstance attending
on the state of existence denoted on the verb is : and in
She writes well, the adverb well specifies the manner or
quality of the writing. When employed with reference to
adjectives, they express the degree of their quality ; as,
An extremely good man ; in which example the adverb
extremely specifies the degree of quality denoted by the
adjective good. When joined to other adverbs they point
out the extent of their signification ; as. He speaks very
correctly; in .which the adverb very specifies to what
extent the meaning of the adverb correctly may be taken.
10. Prepositions are chiefly employed before nouns,
pronouns, and verbs, to show the relation which they
bear to some other noun, pronoun, or verb in a sentence ;
as, The beauty of the poem. She is in the garden. He was
talcen by the enemy. John bought the book for William. 1
gave the money to Henry. Prepositions govern the dif-
ferent cases of nouns and pronouns. The manner of em-
ploying them difiers materially in Spanish and English ;
and when the student has made himself acquainted with
the use of the cases (Lecture 8) he will better com-
prehend the utility of prepositions.
11. CoNJiJK-CTioNs serve to connect the words and
parts of a sentence together ; as. He and she will go,
though / may stay. Here the conjunction and unites the
pronouns he and she, while the other conjunction, though,
connects the two members of the sentence.
12. Interjections are a kind of ejaculations employed
to denote some emotion of the mind, and which, properly
speaking, are not words, nor should they be considered
as forming any part of speech, since they have no agree-
ment with any» They are mere sounds, expressive of
16 SYNTAX. [lECT. III.
some affection of the mind at the time of speaking ; or
certain exclamations used for the purpose of calling the
attention ; as, Alas ! Oh ! Ah sad ! Hollo !
13. The foregoing general definitions of the several
parts of speech are here given preparatory to the treat-
ment of them respectively in their etymology and syntax.
Of the ten parts of speech, the article^ the noun^ the
adjective, the protwun, the vei^b and the participle, under-
go frequent changes in both languages ; sometimes by
a slight addition to, or alteration in their orthography,
and sometimes by very material alterations, and even
a total difference in spelling. These variations are called
accidence, and the parts of speech that are subject to
them are called declinable, and the rest indeclinable.
The manner in which the declinable parts vary will be
pointed out in their etymology aud syntax respectively.
SYNTAX
14. Syntax teaches the method of constructing sen-
tences according to the rules of grammar. By syntax
we are taught how to arrange words in their proj^er
places, that our sentences may be correct, clear, and
incapable of being misconstrued.
In the formation of sentences two things are to be
considered — namely, concord and govermnent.
15. Concord shows how words are made to agree
with one another in persuji, number, gender, and case.
There are five species of concord existing between the
declinable parts of speech in Spanish.
First, between tlie article and noun^ which agreo in
junnber, gender, and case ; Ex.
Fl amor de la gloria. The love of glory.
Las reglas se dieron ci los The rules were given to the
discipulos 7}or el maestro. pupils by the master.
Second, between the adjective and 7ioun, which agree
in number and gender : Ex,
La historia general de la The general history of the
especie hamana y sus human species, and its
acontecimientos extraordi- extraordinary events,
narios, y tra^^formaciones and political transior-
jpoUticas. mations.
LECT. III.] SYXTAX. 17
Third, between the noun and pronoun, which agree
sometimes in gender, and always in numher and case : Ex.
Tu, fiermano, j tu, hermana, Thou, brother, and thou,
podeis quedaros aca. sister, may remain here.
Juaji y Maria salieron John and Maria went out
juntos; pero el illego together; but he arrived
uutes que ella. before she did.
EUos son amigos ; los co- They are friends ; I know
nozco bien. them well.
Fmrth, between the relative and the antecedent, which
sometimes agree in gender, number, and case : Ex.
El liomhre que lo tiene, y The man who has it, and
para quien, or para el for whom it was made.
caal se hizo.
Las mugeres que vi'mos, y a The women whom we saw,
las cuales hablamos. and to whom we spoke.
Fifth, between the verh audits nominative, which agree
in number and person : Ex.
Yo hahlo, ellos escriben, I speak, they write, we
nosotros tocdmos, las played, and the girls
muchachas cantaron. sang.
Los hombres y las mugeres The men and women came.
vinieron.
16. Government is the power that one part of speech
has over another in directing what case, mood, or tense
the regimen, or word governed, is required to be in.
The parts of speech in Spanish that have the power of
governing are : the noun, the pronoun, the verb, the pre-
position, and the conjunction.
First, Nouns govern nouns : Ex.
La casa de Pedro. Peter's house.
Las leijes del estado. The laws of the state.
Second, Nouns and pronouns govern verbs : Ex.
Los perros ladran. Los The dogs bark. The trees
drboles crecen. grow.
Yo leere mientras ellos I will read whilst tb.ey
vuelvan. return.
Third, Verbs and prepositions govern nouns, pro-
nouns, verbs and adverbs : Ex.
18 DEFINITE ARTICLE. [lECT. IV.
Tomo un palo y le pegd. He took a stick and beat
him.
Prometio ir manana. He promised to go to-
morrow.
Di dinero al hombre para I gave money to the man to
comprar comida para buy victuals for them.
ellos.
Fourth, Conjunctions govern verbs: Ex.
Pues que ha venido le Since he is come I will
detendi-e, amenos que detain him, unless he
prometa volver pronto. promise to return soon.
17. Syntax is of two kinds, natural and figurative.
The natural order of syntax is when the rules of grammar
are strictly adhered to, as regards the placing of words in
a sentence. Its principal object being clearness, it does
not admit of any diminution or superfluity of words, nor
change in their natural arrangement. Figurative syntax
is that in which certain licences are taken in the con-
struction of vjentences for the sake of elegance, harmony,
or to add energy to the expression. From these licences
there results a great variety of construction, in which
the beauty of the Spanish idiom displays itself. And the
language, being reduced by the rules of grammar to a
comparatively few principles, yields wonderfully to those
who know how to avail themselves of the variety of
changes which its construction admits.
LECTURE IV.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
1. In Spanish we have to consider the cf^mYe, the
indefinitef and the neuter articles ; the first, of
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.
AGREEMENT.
2. The definite article is el, and it is made to agree in
LECT. IV.] DEFINITE ARTICLE. 19
(jender, number^ and case with the noun to which it is
prefixed: Ex.
Singular. Plural.
Mas. El homhre, the man. Los homhres, the man.
Del homhre, of the man. De las homhres, of the men.
Fern. La muger, the woman. Las mugeres, the women.
A la muger, to the Alas mugeres, to fhewoTnen,
woman.
3. The article el drops the e when it is preceded by the
preposition de {of, or from), and d {to, or at); thus
instead of de el and a el, we must say del and al: Ex.
Del rey, of the king. Del Uhro, of the book.
Al rey, to the king. Al Uhro, to the book.
4. A noun singidar oi^Q feminine gender beginning
with a or ha, and having the stress of voice on th.e first
syllable, requires the masculine instead of the feminine
article ; thus, instead of la alma (thf, soul), la habla (the
speech), we must say el alma, and el habla, although
these nouns are of the feminine gender. This infringe-
ment on the laws of grammar is allowed in order to
avoid the unpleasant broad sound which the concurrence
of the two same vowels would produce, when the accent
is on the first syllable of the noun ; for which reason the
rule does not apply to feminine nouns beginning with a
or ha having the accent on any syllable but the first ;
therefore we say la alcoha (the alcove), la alcaparra (the
caper) ; la hacienda (the estate), la habilidad (the ability) ;
nor does it apply to feminine nouns in the plural
number, since in them the intervening s prevents the
clashing of the two vowels : as, las almas (the souls),
las hahlas (the speeches).
EXERCISE ox THE AGREEMENT OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.
[It is intended that the pupil should write out the
Spanish part only of this and all the succeeding Exercises,
supplying the words that are left out. Previously to
which, however, he will observe that the words enclosed
in brackets correspond with the translation above or
beneath them, and consequently require no alteration,
that m. stands for masculine, f. for feminine, and p. for
20 DEFINITE AUTICLE. [lECT. IV.
plural. Words having an asterisk (*) under them are to
be omitted in the translation. A horizontal line ( — )
denotes a similarity of spelling to the word above it,
observing, however, that the letters s and t are never
doubled in Spanish, and that t before i in English words
ending in Hon is changed into c in Spanish. Th»'
numeral figures indicate the order in which the Spanish
words are to be arranged.]
The boy, the girl the hatter, and the
muchacho, m. muchacha, /. sombrerero, m, y.
seamstress. The sun, the moon, the stars, and the
costuerra, /. sol, m. luna, /. estrellas /. p.
2)lanets. The knife, the fork, the beef, the salt,
planetas, m.;?. cuchillo, m. tenedor, m. came,/, sal,/,
the plates, and the wine-glasses,
platos, 7?i.j?. copillas, /. /?.
The atrocity of the crime, The violence of the
atrocidad, /. crimen, m. violencia, /.
wind. From the house to the garden. From the garden
viento, m. casa, /. jardin, m.
to the house. [They arrived] at the inn.
llegaron meson, m.
The bird sang. Those are the birds. The water
ave, /. canto, aquellas son aves/. 7;. agua, /
is cold. The waters of the rivers. The eagle soars
esta fria. aguas,/. ;7. vios, in.p. aguila, / vuela
very high in the air. The cunningness of the deed,
muy alto en aire, m. astucia, /. hazana.
E3IPL0YMENT.
WnEX EMPLOYED ALIKE IX BOTH LAXGITAGES.
5. The definite article is employed in both languages
before nouns taken in a, particular or definite sense : Ex.
£1 hombre elocuente huye T/ie eloquent man flies
de la arridez del estilo di- from the aridity of the
diictico. — (Capmaxy — didactic style.
Filosofia de la Elociiencia).
LECT. IV.] L'EriNITE ARTICLE. 21
La divinidad de sus inge- The divinity of their ge-
nios, y la alteza de sus niuses, and the loftincsa
conceptos.— (Cervantes.) of their ideas.
6. Before adjectives substantively used in a general
sense, that is, when they express the whole of the kind
denoted by their meaning : Ex.
Los avaros y los codiciosos The avaricious and the cove-
nuuca estan satisfechos. tons are never satisfied.
7. Before nouns and adjectives that express a whole
nation, a whole sect, etc. : Ex.
Los Alemanes son muy in- The Germans are very in-
dustriosos. dustrious.
Hablo de los Protestantes ; I speak of the Protestants ;
no de los CatolicGS. not of the Catholics.
8. It is employed before a noun singular that ex-
presses a whole species or kind: Ex.
El cahallo es animal noble. The horse is a noble animal.
La uva crece con abundan- The grape grows abun-
cia en Espaiia. dantly in ISpain.
9. Also before nouns that are singular in their kind :
Ex.
La luna es satelite de la The moon is a satellite of
tieira. the earth.
10. Before the names of seas, rivers, and mountains :
Ex.
El Atlantico, el Tajo, y los The Atlantic, the Tagus,
Alpes. and the Alps.
11. Before the proper names of particular individuals;
before surnames employed in the plural number, and
when used figuratively : Ex.
La Venus de Ticiano. The Venus of Titian.
Esta relacionado con los He is related to the Oli-
Olivares. vares.
Calderon puede llamarse el Calderon may be styled
Shakspere de Espana. the Shakspere of Spain.
Note. — It is omitted in both languages before nouns
employed in the aggregate : Ex.
22
DEFINITE ARTICLE.
[lECT. IV,
Espana, Francia, Iijgla-
terra, Italia, y Alemania
(todas), se hicieron casi
a un mismo tiempo reinos
independientes bajo un
nuevo sistema politico. —
(Marina — Ensayo Hint.
Crit.)
Spain, France, England,
Italy, and Germany,
were (all) made, almost
at the same period, in-
dependent kingdoms,
under a new political
system.
WHEN USED in SPANISH AND NOT IN ENGLISH.
12. The definite article is used in Spanisli before
all nouns taken in a general and unlimited sense : that is,
nouns in which the whole of the kind or species denoted
by them is included : Ex.
Las acciones buenas se
desprecian si nacen del
arte, y no de la virtud. —
(Saavedra Fajardo.)
Za industria y la diligencia
son hijas de la esperanza.
— (Mariana.)
13. Before the names of the four quarters of the globe;
before the names of empires, kingdoms, jDrovinces, and
coimtries; and before the four seasons of the year : Ex.
Good actions are despised
if they spring from art,
and not from virtue.
Industry and diligence are
the offspring of hope.
La America tiene mas va-
riedad de clima que la
Europa.
La Austria es un imperio
muy poblado.
La Espana produce todo lo
necessario para la vida:
la Andalucia es una de
sus provincias fertiles.
Algunos llaman a la Aus-
tralia la quinta division
del globo.
La primavera es mas agra-
dable que el invierno.
Spam
America has greater va-
riety of climate than
Europe.
Austria is a very populous
empire.
produces all the
necessaries of life : An-
dalusia is one of her
fertile provinces.
Some caU Australia the
fifth division of the
globe.
Spring is more agreeable
than winter.
Exception 1st. — It is generally omitted in Spanish
LECT. IV.] DEFINITE ARTICLE. 23
before the name of a country, a kingdom, a province, etc.,
when a part of it only is comprehended in the name: Ex.
Fui a Inglaterra. I went to England.
Viene de Erancia. He comes from France.
Viven en Estremadura. They live in Estremadura.
Exception 2nd. — It is also frequently omitted before
the namesof kingdoms, provinces,etc., when they are pre-
ceded by a preposition ; unless they are personified : Ex.
En Esparia no hay tanto In Spain there is not so
crepusculo como en Ingla- much twilight as in Eng-
terra. land.
Los actos de la Eusia con The proceedings of Eussia
respecto a la Polonia. with respect to Poland.
Exception 3rd. — As the article is omitted in both lan-
guages hefore jjropernaiaes of individuals and places, so
it is omitted before the names of kingdoms,provinces,etc.,
bearing the same names as their capital cities : Ex.
Venecia y Genova eran an- Venice and Genoa were
tiguamente estados inde- anciently independent
pendientes. states.
14. Nouns in the third person, denoting tlie title,
dignity, profession, etc., of an individual, require the
definite article : Ex.
La Eeina Victoria. Queen Victoria.
J^^ General N., ye^Capitan General N., and Captain
E. K.
El Doctor M. Doctor M.
El Senor y la Seiiora B. Mr. and Mrs. B.
15. When several nouns follow one another in a sen-
tence, the article is frequently repeated before each,
particularly if they differ in gender ; and if a preposition
precede the article, it is likewise frequently repeated.
(This, however, is not to be taken as a fixed rule, since
it often yields to fancy or taste) : Ex.
(En el siglo de oro) no habia (In the golden age) neither
lafraude, el engano, ni la did fraud, deceit, or
malicia mezclandose con malice mingle itself with
la verdad y llaneza.—' truth and simplicity.
(OERviNTES — Don Quijote.)
24
DEFINITE ARTICLE.
[lECT. IV.
(Ignorance and error), tho
enemies of public tran-
quillity; of tlie prosperity
of nations; of order, and
of subordination.
(La ignorancia y el error),
enemigos de la piiblica
tranquilidad ; de la pros-
peridad de las naciones ;
del orden y de la subor-
dinacion. — (Marina —
Ensayo Hist. Cnt.)
16. The days of the week are sometimes, and the
hour of the day is always, preceded by the definite ar-
ticle in Spanish ; and the preposition used in English
before the days of the week is not translated. Observe
also, by the following examj^les, how the time of day is
expressed in Spanish : Ex.
Volvere a verle el Domingo
a la una, 6 a las dos.
No vaya hasta Lunes d las
cuatro y media, 6 Martes
a las siete m4nos cuarto.
Este Vmd. aqui Miercoles 6
Jueves a las ocho mdnos
diez minutes ; 6 Yiernes,
6 Sabado, a las nueve y
veinte minutos.
f
17. When the noun casa^ Ihoiise, signifies home^ resi-
dence, or dwelling, it is used without |iie article : Ex.
Me voy a casa. Estamos I am going home. We are
cerca de casa. near home.
Estii en casa de su tio. lie is at his uncle's.
(Sec Lect. 8, Par. 18.)
I shall return and see you
on Sunday, at one or two
o'clock.
Do not go till Monday at
half-past four, or Tues-
day at a quarter to seven.
Be here on Wednesday or
Thursday, at ten minutes
to eight; or Friday or
Saturda;^ at twenty mi-
nutes after nine.
WHEN USED IN ENGLISH AND NOT IN SPANISH.
18, The definite article is not used in Spanish before
numeral adjectives following the names of sovereigns,
potentates, etc. : Ex.
Isabel Segunda. Isabelle the Second.
Leopoldo Primero. Pio Leopold the First. Piua
None. the Ninth.
LECT. IV.]
DEFINITE ARTICLE.
25
19. It is omitted when we speak of the titles of
books, chapters, etc. : Ex.
Esta obra se intitula **His-
toria de Espaua."
Capitulo cuarto, verso pri-
mero.
This book is entitled ''The
History of Spain."
Chapter the fourth, verse
the first.
But if we allude to the subject of the work, or any-
particular part of it, we employ the article : Ex.
La Historia de Espana trata TheHistory of Spain treats
tambien de su Literatura. also of its Literature.
En el capitulo primero en- In the first chapter we
contramos, etc. find, etc.
20. The article is omitted, except before the first
noun, (if required there,) when several nouns are used
in apposition ; that is, when several nouns follow each
other, all alluding to the same person or thing: Ex.
El Principe Alberto, con- Prince Albert, the consort
sorte de la Reina Victoria.
Madrid, capital de Espaiia,
y residencia de su corte.
Entra Cide Hamete, coro-
nista desta grande his-
toria, con estas palabras,
etc. — (Cervantes. — Don
Quijote.)
21. When nouns are used in a partitive sense they
admit no article in either language, unless we wish to
refer to some particular object : Ex.
of Queen Victoria.
Madrid, M^ capital of Spain,
and residence of its court.
Cidi Hamet, the chronicler
of this great history,
commences with these
words, etc.
Deme Vmd.* agua.
Quiere Vmd. dinero ?
Ella posee talentoy hermo-
sura.
Deme Vmd. del vino de que
bebi ayer.
Give me {some) water.
Do you want {any) money ?
She possesses wit and
beauty.
Give me {some) of the wine
of which I drank yester-
day.
In these examples we see that something in the sense
of some, or any, or a little, is understood, which in both
* Vmd. is pronounced in Spanish Uated : see the meaning of this
abbreviation, Lect. 14, Par. 22.
0
26 DEFINITE ARTICLE. [lECT. IV.
languages, may be either expressed or not, for which
reason these phrases may also be construed thus :
Deme Vmd. un poco de Give me some or a little
agua.
water.
Quiere Ymd. algvn dinero ? Do you want any money ?
Ella posee algun talento y She possesses some wit and
algxma hermosura. some beauty.
Deme Vmd. un poco del vino Give me some of the wine
de que bebi ayer. of which I drank yester-
day.
Un poco de is equivalent to a little, or a small portion^
or quantity of. Algun means some, or any : it is derived
from the indefinite pronoun alguno, which changes its
last vowel into a for the feminine gender, and an s is
added to it to form the plural number ; but when it
precedes a noun masculine singular it drops the o : Ex.
I Necesita Vmd. dinero aU Do you require any
guno '? money ?
PrestemeVmd. a/^20i libro, Lend me some book, some
algunos poemas, algunas poems, some novels.
novelas.
(See Indefinite Pronouns, Lect. 19.)
EXERCISE ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.
The beauty of the poem. The deHcacy of
hermosura,/. poema, m. delicadeza, f.
the style. The virtuous are estimable ; but
estilo, 772. virtuosos, m. p. son estimables mas
not the vicious, The Bomans were a
no viciosos, m. p. Eomanos, m. p. eran una
warlike (2) nation (Ij. The lion is stronger
guerrera f. leon, m. es [mas fuerte]
than the tiger. The aurora announces the approach
que tigre, m. -/. anuncia venida,/.
of the sun. The P^-renees divide France from
Pirineos, m.p. dividen
Spain. The Tagus empties into the Atlantic.
Tajo, 7/1. desagua en Atlantico, m.
LECT. lY.] DEFINITE ARTICLE. 2<7
The Jupiter of Phidias. He is of the family of
Jupiter, m. Fidias ^1 es familia, /.
the Langfords. Moratin is the Goldoni of Spain.
m. p. m.
[As soon as I received] the information that the
luego que recibi noticia, f. [de que]
soldiers had occupied the fort and town,
soldados, m. p. habian ocupado fuerte, m. villa, /.
my zeal for the service [did not allow me] to
mi celo por servicio, m. no me permitia *
remain any longer in the capital. Among the
quedarmemas tiempo en •/. entre
advantages that our arms obtained in the glorious
ventajas, /. p. que nuestras armas lograron gloriosa, /.
action, the most interesting was that of having frus-
/. mas interesante, /. fue la haber frus-
trated the design of the enemy. Care is
trado intento,7n, enemigo, m. cuidado, m. es
often the attendant on greatness. Man is a
amenudo compaiiero, m. degrandeza,/. hombre,?w. ^^
slave to his passions. Spring, Summer, Autumn,
esclavo de suspasiones primavera,/. verano, m, otoilo, m.
and Winter are the four seasons of the
invierno, m. son cuatro estaciones, /. p.
year. Cowardice and meanness are qualities of a
ano, ?7i. cobardia, /. bajeza,/. son cualidades un
man without honour. Impartial (2) criticism (1)
sin honor imparcial critica, /.
[should not offend], [on the contrary], [we ought tofeel
no debe ofender al contrario debiamos hon-
honoured by it]. General N. was happily engaged in
rarnos con ella m. [se ocupaba con feliz exito] en
maintaining tranquillity and repressing seditions,
mantener tranquilidad, / [en reprimir] sediciones/.^.
The happiness of a man of feeling is to relieve the
felicidad, /. sentimiento es * aliviar
23 DEFINITE ARTICLE. [lECT. IV.
wants of the poor. The love of glory
necesidades, / p. pobres, m. p. amor, m. por gloria./,
animates the brave. France, Spain, Italy, and
[anima a] valerosos, m. p, Italia, /.
Gennany have different forms of government.
Germania, /. tienen diferentes formas gobierno.
Hussia is a vast Empire. Eiiropa, Asia, Africa,
. /. es un vasto Imperio Europa, /. /. Africa./.
and America are the four quarters of the world.
America,/ son cuatro partes, / p. mundo, t/i.
Borne and Venice were ancient (2) republics (1). I
Roma Venecia fueron antiguas repiiblicas *
intend to proceed from Holland to France, end from
intento * proceder Holanda
France to England. Mr. A. lives in the next
vive proxima
street. Mrs. B. has spoken to Mrs. C. I am a sub-
calle,/ ha hablado yo soy "^subs-
stitute of Doctor Sangrado. Gil Bias, said Captain
tituto ni. dijo capitan, m.
Rolando. Innocence, virtue, and merit should
— inocencia, / virtud,/ merito ?n. debian
be appreciated. Never be a slave to avarice
ser apreciados jamas seas* esclavo do avaricia, /.
nor vice. .Tews, Christians, and Mahometans, all
ni vicio. in. judios cristianos maiiometanos todos
are offspring of the same parent. [We shall leave
son hijos mismo padre, ni. saldremos de
London] on Wednesday at half-past four, and arrive
Londres Miercoles, m. llegaremos
at our destination on Friday, at one or two [o'clock],
nuestro destine Viernes, 7n, 6 *
Victoria the First was proclaimed Queen of Great
— ^ primerafu^ proclamada Reina Gran
Britain in the year 1837. Leo the Ninth was
Bretana, /. ano, m. Leon nono fue
LECT. IV.] DEFINITE ARTICLE. 29
the first Pope that maintained an army in his
primer Papa, m. que mantuvo un egercito sus
dominions. Here is a book entitled *' The Civil (2)
dominies aqui esta un libro intitulado civiles
Wars (1) of Granada." The second paragraph says
guerras segundo parrafo, m. dice
thus. Hercules the son of Jupiter. Here is a paper
asi Hercules hijo papel, w.
-u'hich I have bought. This is the key of the
que * he comprado esta es Have,/,
garden. Leopold Grrand Duke of Tuscany. Nicholas
Leopoldo Gran Duque Toscano Nicolas
Emperor of Eussia. Quarrels frequently
Emperador disputas, f.p. [muchas voces]
produce fatal (2) consequences (I). It is some of the
traen fatales consecuencias ^' es
wine that [I sent you]. They are some of the
vino, m. que le mande * son
apples from my orchard. I have received some
manzanas;/^. mi huerto * he recibido
letters. I want some paper and some pens.
cartas./.p. * necesito papel, m. plumas, /. p.
I have some documents to answer. Have they
* tengo documentos, m. p. que contestar han *
received any wine ? Yes, they have received some,
recibido si * han
Riches often gain us credit, po^er.
rii;uezas, f.p. amenudo [nos grangeun"', credito pocter
friends, and respect,
aniigos respeto
so INDEFINITE AETICLE. [ LECr. V.
LECTURE V.
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
1. The English indefinite article a or an, is rendered
wi in Spanish before a noun masculine, or its adjective,
and una before a noun feminine : Ex.
Un libro, un buen caballo, A book, a good horse, an
un agente, una casa, una agent, a house, a fine
bella muger. woman.
Observe that some writers and speakers employ un,
instead of una, before those feminine nouns which take
the masculine article, noticed in Par. 4 of the preceding
Lecture ; as un alma, un hahla,
2. The English indefinite article employed before
nouns of weight, measure, number, or distance, in
spealdng of their value or rate, is translated by the
definite article : Ex.
Dos duros la vara. Two dollars a yard.
Seis peniques la libra. Six pence a pound.
Tres chelines el ciento. Three shillings a hundred.
A razon de diez reales la At the rate of ten reals a
legua. league.
3. Sometimes por is used instead of el, in similar
cases : Ex.
A razon de seis duros por At the rate of six dollars
vara. per yard.
A diez duros por ciento. At ten dollars per cent.
Quince reales por legua. Eifteen reals per league.
4. When a or an is employed in English as a
numeral adjective, and means particularly one, it is trans-
lated into Spanish also by the numeral adjective : Ex.
Aqui hay una onza de oro Here is an ounce of gold
y una libra de plata. and a pound of silver.
WHEN USED IN ENGLISH AND NOT IN SPANISH.
6. The indefinite article is omitted in Spanish before
LECT. v.] IKDEFINITB ABTICLE. 81
nouns expressive of the rank^ profession, religion,
country, etc., of an individual, when these nouns are
preceded by a verb : Ex.
El e8 embajador. He is an ambassador.
Yo soy Ingles y ella es I am an Englishman, and
Francesa. she is a Frenchwoman.
Su padre es protestante. His father is a Protestants
i/c^o'aqui capitan, y pronto He arrived here a captain,
le hicieron coronel. and was soon made a
colonel.
But when any such nouns refer to an individual we
wish to particularize, the article should be employed in
Spanish : Ex.
El es un oficial que se dis- He is an officer that dis-
tinguio en la batalla de tinguished himself in the
Talavera. battle of Talavera.
6 . It is omitted in Spanish when employed in English
before a noun denoting the different inclinations of the
mind, and motives of action : Ex.
Tenia inclinacion de decirle. I had a mind to tell him.
Estaba de mal humor. He was in a bad humour.
Tengo motivo para negarlo. I have a motive for deny-
ing it.
7. It is likewise omitted before nouns in apposition,
and before a word or member of a sentence that speci-
fies the nature of the antecedent noun, or that distin-
guishes in any particular manner the person or thing
represented by it : Ex.
Cadiz, ciudad de Andalucia. Cadiz, a town of Andalusia.
La gratitud, cualidad noble Gratitude, a noble quality
del alma. of the mind.
Lope de Vega, poetainsigne Lope de Vega, a distin-
espafiol. guished Spanish poet.
Thus, also, it is omitted before a phrase inserted in
another by way of parenthesis : Ex.
Esto cantaba Elicio, pastor Thus sung Elicio, a shep-
en las riberas del Tajo, herd on the borders of
etc. — (Cervantes — La the Tagus, etc.
Galatea.)
32 INDEFIXITE ARTICLE. [lECT. V.
8. Also when employed in English before a noun
pre ceded by a word denoting comparison : Ex.
Tan bella muger, o/-, muger So beautiful a woman.
tan bella.
Hombre tan elocuente como As eloquent a man as Ci-
Ciceron. cero.
Tal persona ; tal gusto. Such a person ; such a
pleasure.
9. It is also omitted after the word que, what, used
in exclamation or surprise before a noun : Ex.
Qu6 ruido ! Que bella vista ! What a noise ! What a
fine view !
10. It is omitted before the adjective ciertOy certain,
when used in an indefinite manner ; but when cierto
means sure, it may be employed with or without the in-
definite article. Cierto changes the final o into a, when
it refers to a noun feminine : Ex.
Cierto hombre y cierta mu- A certain man and a cer-
ger me digeron que . . . tain woman told me that...
Es (una) cosa cierta. It is a certain thing.
11. It is dispensed with in the title of a book : Ex.
Diccionario Espaiiol. A Spanish Dictionary.
Gramdtica Inglesa. Ari English Grammar.
Ensayo sobre la Educacion. A?i Essay on Education.
12. It is omitted before tl:3 fractional parts of an
integer : Ex.
Dos y medio. Two and a half.
Libra y cuarto. One pound and a quarter*
Cuatro varas y tercio. Four yards and a third.
Also before an integer preceded or followed by a
fractional part : Ex.
Media onza. Half an ounce.
Dos tercios de vara. Two-thirds of a yard.
Docena y cuarto. A dozen and a quarter.
Legua y dos tercios. A league and two-thirds.
Likewise before a hundred and a thousand : it is re-
tained, however, before a million^ but not before half a
million, nor a million and a half: Ex.
LECT. v.] INDEFINITE ARTICLE. Zl
Cien libras : mil pesos. A hundred pounds : <#
thousand dollars.
Un miUon de reales. A million of reals.
Medio millon de libras. Haifa million of pounds.
Millon y medio de duros. A million and a half of
dollars.
EXERCISE ON THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
Fortune is a capricious (2) deity (1). A guilty (2)
fortuna, /. es caprichosa deidad,/. criminal
conscience (1) is a perpetual (2) torment (1). I bought
conciencia, /. perpetuo tormento, m. * compre
a book, an ink-stand, and a dozen of pens. How
libro, 771. tintero, m. docena, /. plumas a
miz'?h a yard ? Two dollars a pound. Six dollars a
como vara,/, dos Hbra, /. seis
hundred. We travelled at the rate of ten leagues a day*
ciento, m. * caminamos * razon diez leguas dia, wi»
The ship sails six miles an hour. Give me a dozen
buque, m. anda seis millas hora,/. deme Ymd.
at two guineas a dozen. I will let you have nine
[da ^.1 [Le dare a Vmd.] nueve
pounds at a shilling a pound. He is a bookbinder and his
4 chelin, m. el es encuadernador su
brother a bookseller. He is a German, and she an
hermano librero Aleman ella
Irishwoman. He acted like a traitor. Parnassus, a
Irlandesa * obro como traidor Parnaso, m.
mountain of Phocis,is famous for being the residence ^ of
monte Focida,/. famoso por ser residencia, /.
the Muses. Captain M., an officer in the French (2)
musas, /. p. capitan, m. oficial frances
service (1), fought a duel with Count F., an
servicio, m. tuvo dcsafio, m. con conde, m.
Italian (2) Colonel (1). Cornelius Tacitus, a famous
italiano coronel Cornelio Tacito famoso
0 5
34 NEUTEK ARTICLE. [lECT. VI.
Latin (2) historian (1), was born in the reign
latino historiador * nacio en reinado, m.
of Nero, a cruel (2) and detestable (3) Prince (1).
Neron principe
He obtained so complete a victory. She has such a
* logro completa victoria . * tiene tan
fine house, and so beautiful a garden ! "What an excellent
bella hermoso bellisima
idea ! What a fine horse ! A certain friend of mine
hermoso caballo amigo, m. * mio
[spoke to me ^bout] a certain person. It is a certain (2)
me hablo acerca de persona,/. * es
evidence (1) of the fact. [It is worth] a thousand
ovidencia, /. hecho, m. vale
pounds. [I lent himj a hundred dollars. This palace cost
le prcste este palacio costo
a million of dollars, and that, a million and a half. Give
aquel de
me two dollars and a half. Here is an ounce and a half
me aqui hay
of gold, and half an ounce of silver. A Treatise on
oro plata tratado
Philosophy. A History of the World,
filosofia historia mundo, m.
LECTURE VL
THE NEUTER ARTICLE.
1. The neuter article lo is employed, first, before
adjectives in the singular number used as substantives,
expressing some abstract quality ; and observe, that all
Spanish adjectives may be so converted into substan-
tives, by simply prefixing the article lo to them : Ex.
LEGT. VI.] NEUTER ABTICLE. 85
Es menester ejercitarse en It is necessary to exercise
ver como en sentir, y en oneself in seeing as in
juzgar de lo hermoso por feeling, and to judge of
Ids ojos, y de lo bueno the beautiful (or that
por el sentimiento moral. which ts beautiful) by
(Capmany — Filosofia de tlie sight, and of the
la Elocuencia.) good (or that which is
good) by tbe moral feel-
ing.
Here we see that lo stands in the place of that which isy
or of ivhat is. Wo may likewise employ in Spanish,
though, perhaps, with less elegance, those words, the
place of which is supplied by the neuter article lo; thus,
juzgar de aquello que es hermoso, etc., and ^eaquello que
es bueno, etc. — or, de lo que es hermoso, etc., and de lo que
es bueno, etc. : in either way they mean that which is
beautiful, or what is beautiful; and that which is good, or
what is good. In such instances neither the masculine
nor the feminine article could be employed, since there
is no noun with which it could agree : the lo, therefore,
stands in the place of lo que es; that ivhich is, or what is.
Secondly, the neuter article lo is frequently employed
with the words que and cual, before verbs ; lo que mean-
ing what, or that which, and lo cual, which, or the ivhich :
Ex.
Bstos trabajos, moderada- These labours, exercised
mente tornados, se acos- with moderation, accus-
tumbran los hombres d torn men to bear and to
sufriryhacerZo^wedeben; do what they ought:
lo cual no podrian hacer which they would never
ni sufrir si, etc. — (J. L. be able to do nor to
DE Palacios Exjbios.) bear, if, etc.
And here, also, the neuter article is brought in to refer
to some act, or occurrence, which, not being expressed by
a noun, no gender can be attributed to it ; hence neither
the masculine nor the feminine article could be employed.
EXERCISE ON THE NEUTER ARTICLE.
The work treats on the sublime and beautiful. [Let us
obra, /. trata sobre prefi-
36 NOUNS — NUMBER. [lECT. Vkl,
prefer] that whicli is solid and useful. [Let liim abide] by
ramos solido litil que se limite h
what is just. Of greater value is the little that the
justo [es de mayor estimacion] poco que
wise man knows, than the much that the rich man
sabio, m. * sabe quo mucho rico *
possesses. What is most desirable is (2) not (1) always the
tiene mas apetecible no siempre
most easy to obtain. The beautiful acquires under his
facil de conseguir toma bajo de su
pen new beauty; the tender, new softness; the
pluma nueva hermosura tierno suavidad
energetic, new vigour ; the awful, new sublimity. I
en^rgico nuevo vigor terrible sublimidad *
listened to all what (or, that which) he said, by which I
escuche * todo * dijo por *.
.learnt that, etc. "What I know is not what you think.
supe yo se Ymd. piensa
All that glitters is not gold. I did what he desired me
todo reluce oro * hice *[meencarg6J
to do, which (or, the which) was the following.
1^119 hiciese i\x6 siguiente
LECTURE VII.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF NOUNS.
NUMBER.
1. Nouns have two numbers, the singular and the
plural. When the Spanish noun ends in a vowel on which
the stress of voice does not fall, its plural is formed by
adding s to the noun in the singular number ; as, estrellay
star ; estrellas, stars : — ave, bird ; aves, birds : — catcilogo,
catalogue; cntdlogos, catalogues.
LECT, VII.] NOUNS — NUMBER. 37
2. "When the noun ends in a, or i, accented, or in y,
the plural is formed by the addition of es. The same
takes place with nouns ending in a consonant, except *r,
in which latter the plural is formed by changing the z
into ces; as Ja;«, bashaw; hajdes, bashaws ; jahali, wild
boar ; jahalies, wild boars ; ley, law ; leyes, laws ; harrilf
barrel ; harriles, barrels ; luz, light ; luces, lights.
From the above rule are excepted mama, mamma,
papa, papa ; and sofa, sofa ; which take only an s in the
plural.
The very few Spanish nouns that end in e, o, and u,
accented, take s alone in the plural ; as corse', corset ;
corse's, corsets ; rondo, rondo ; rondos, rondos ; amhigu,
medley; amhigus, medleys.
3. Nouns ending in s, accented on the p6nult or ante-
penult, are written alike in both numbers ; as : e'xtasis,
ecstasy or ecstasies ; crisis, crisis or crises.
4. There are some nouns which in their nature have
always a plural signification, and consequently require
that the article employed with them be in- the plural
number : such are alhricias, a reward ; alicates, pincers ;
andas,hiQV', awyanVZas, hand-barrow; antiparras, spec-
tacles ; lofes, lungs ; hragas, breeches ; calendas, calends ;
calzoncillos, drawers ; carnestolendas, last three carnival
days ; cosquillas, tickling ; despabiladeras, snuffers ; efeme-
rides, f., ephemeris ; enaguas, under-petticoat ; exe^uiasy
exequies; fauces, f., gullet; Hares, f., pot-hanger; maitines,
matins ; modales, manners ; nupcias, wedding ; parillas,
grid-iron ; preces, prayers ; semejas, similitude ; tenazas,
tongs ; tercianas, ague ; iiniehlas, darkness ; trebedes,
trevet ; visperas, vespers ; viveres, provisions ; and a few
others not much used.
5. There are others which, notwithstanding their
plural termination, have not a plural signification, and
therefore require the article in the singular number ;
such are azotacalles, lounger, ; hesamanos, court-day ;
brindis, saluting toast; sacacorchos, corkscrew; sacatrapos,
gun-worm ; guardapies, over-petticoat ; sacabotas, boot-
jack; sacamuelas,tooth.-6ireiVfeT; cortaplumas, -j^eu-kmie;
and a few more, little used.
33 irOUNS — NUMBER. [lECT. VII.
EXERCISE ON TRB ITJEMATION OF THE PLUBAL NOUNS.
[Observe, that in all the future exercises, every Spanish nonn
will be put in the singular number, whatever may be that of the
corresponding nouns in English. The student will therefore have
to consider the number of the English noun previous to translating
it, and be guided by the rules for the formation of the plural of
Spanish nouns, when rcqiured.]
The beauty of tlie birds, and tbe melody of their Yoices.
hermosui'a, / inelodia, /. sus voz
The woods in those countries are very extensive. The
bosque, m. en aquellos pais son muy extensos
flocks in the meadows. The niceties of the languages,
rebano, m. prado, w. delicadeza, /. lengua, /
The gilly-flowers and roses grew in abundance. Until
aleli, 772. rosa, /. crecian abundancia [hasta que]
prisons be converted into houses of industry and schools of
carcel,/. seconviertanen industria escuela
reform [we shall never draw any benefit] from the
reforma nunca eacaremos provecho
sentences of the judges. Men and women should be
sentencia,/. . juex, m. hombre, m. muger,/. doben ser
faithful [to each other]. Those ministers framed good
fieles unos con otros aquellos ministro formaron buenas
laws for their countries. The scholars received the books
ley para sus pueblo discipulo, m. recibieronlibro,7«.
and pens from their masters. There is the penknife.
pluma,/. ' sus maestro alliesta cortaplumas,7w.
Those garrets are verry roomy. The flowers of those
zaquizami son espaciosos flor, /
gardens are beautiful. [There would be] few contentions,
hormosas habria pocas contienda
frauds, and perjuries, if men [would set] bounds to their
fraude perjurio si pusiesen limite sus
desires. The bashaws were seated on rich sofas.
deseo estaban sentados en ricos
The different theses which they advocated. He has
diferentes t^ni^ /. que * apoyaban * ha
. WI.] NOUNS — NUMBER. S9
written several rondos. The manners of that gentleman
eecrito varios modales, wj.p. ese caballero
are very polished,
sonmuy finos.
6. Some nouns are called collective, which are divided
into definite and indefinite. Under the head of collective
definite are classed all those nouns that represent an orga-
nized body of objects ; as un egercito, an army ; una nacion^
a nation, etc. ; and under collective indefinite are classed
those that do not comprehend unity in their meaning ;
as una multitud, a multitude; un enjamhre, a swarm, etc.
See Agreement of the Verb with its Nominative. Lect.
27, Par. 2.
of augmentative and diminutive nouns.
7. These derivatives denote larger or smaller objects
of their kind, than those which their primitives express.
They are formed in Spanish by the addition of various
terminations to the noun in its primitive state, dropping
the final vowel, should it have one.
8. Nouns augmentative, of the masculine gender, end-
ing in a consonant, are formed by the addition of the
letters on, ote, or azo ; those of the feminine gender ona,
Ota, or aza. These terminations are equivalent in their
meanings to the English words big, large, stout, tall, and
such like : Ex.
Primitives. Derivatives.
Homlre, a man. Hombron^ hombrazo, a tall, or large
man.
Muger, a woman. Mugerona, a masculine woman.
Sombrero, a hat. Sombrerote, a large, or big hat.
Hombron also signifies a man distinguished for talent,
or valour.
9. The terminations azo and iza are sometimes used
also to express the injury that a weapon is capable of
inflicting, and the gender of the noun so employed follows
the rule of the termination of these additionals (see
Pae. 13): Ex.
45 NOUNS — GENDER. [leCT. VII.
t*a ma"-^ de un pistoleta^o. He killed her "with a pistol
shot.
Me tiro en tierra de un gar- He knocked me down with
rota^^o. the blow of a bludgeon.
L-^ di una buena palz'^a. I gave him a good beating
with a stick.
10. By a double termination some augmentatives
ending in on and ona acquire a greater force ; as from
picaron, picaronazo ; from mugerona, mugeronaza.
11. Nouns diminutive are formed by the addition of
the terminations in, illo, ito, etc, uelo, or uejo, to the mas-
culine : the feminine are formed by adding a to the ter-
mination m, and by changing the final vowel of the
others into a (dropping the final vowel of the primitive
nouns of either gender ending in one) ; observing, how-
ever, that diminutives ending in ito and ico denote not
only smallness, but a kind of endearing expression ; and
those that end in illo, uelo, or uejOf generally denote con-
tempt or disgust : Ex.
Primitives. Derivatives.
Muchacho, a boy. MuchacJiito, a little boy.
Muchachillo, a pitiful little fellow.
Casa, a house. Casita, a nice little house.
Casilla, a mean little house.
12. Many of the diminutive terminations may acquira
a still further diminutive signification, by adding other
terminations to them ; thus, chico, small ; chiquito, or
chiquitilloy very small ; chiquiritito, a tiny little thing.
These rules,however, are not always strictly uniform ;
practice alone can make the pupil familiar with the pe-
culiar meanings of these terminations, of which, besides
those already mentioned, many others may be formed
at fancy.
GENDER,
1 3. Gender is that property in nouns which marks the
distinction of sex; thus in English there are the masculine,
the feminine f and what is called the neuter gender ; the
mascidine being applied to living creatures of the male
kind, the feminine to those of the female kind, and the
LECT. VII.] NOUNS— GENDER. 41
neuter generally to inanimate objects, with some excep-
tions. In Spanish, however, there are but two genders
in nouns, the masculine and th.e feminine ; and the gender
of Spanish nouns is distinguished — First, by their signi-
fication, as all animate objects are of the gender of their
respective sex ; and the rank, professions, employments,
kindred, and so forth, of persons, are of the gender of
the individuals to which they belong. Secondly — by
their termination — namely, nouns ending in a, d, or ion,
are generally of the feminine gender : those that end in
any other letter are mostly masculine : Ex.
Pem. Inocencia, innocence. Masc. honor, honour.
vir tud, YiviMQ. sombrero, ho^t.
relacion, relation, valle, valley.
Though this rule has exceptions, it is an easy one to
be guided by. A list of the exceptions will here follow :
observe, first, however, that there are two other distinc-
tions in the gender of nouns to be considered, that one
called common, from its being equally applied to male
and female ; for instance, el tigre, the tiger ; la tigre, the
tigress ; un alhace'a, an executor ; una alhacea, an exe-
cutrix ; in which the article in Spanish marks the dis-
tinction of sex. The other is called epicene, which is
applied to those nouns that express both genders by tho
same word ; as el pato, the duck, or the drake ; la hiena,
the he or she hyena ; but the article prefixed to them
does not vary to mark their gender ; to point out which,
it is necessary to add some word to them descriptive of
their sex : as, el pato macho, el pato hembra ; la hiena
macho, la hiena hembra; macho signifying male, and
hemhra female.
1 4. The gender of nouns that are used in the plural
number only, such as la tenazas, the tongs ; el sacacorchos
the corkscrew, are distinguished by their terminations,
supposing they could be used in the singular number ;
except efemerides, diary ; fauces, gullet ; fases, phases ;
lla?'es, pot-hanger; preces, prayers ; tre'bedes, trevet, which
are feminino.
42
KOUWS — GENDER.
LlECT. VII.
GENDER OF NOTIXS THAT REFEB TO KINDRED, RANK,
PROFESSIONS, ETC.
15. The greater part of those that refer to males end
in 0, and some in e ; the feminine termination is formed
by changing those final vowels into a; thus, hemiano,
Jierinana, brother, sister ; tt'o, tia, uncle, aunt ; criadOf
cna6/a,male-servant, female- servant ; inonjeymovja, monk,
nun. Those ending in r, add an a for the feminine ; as
autovj autora, male author, female author ; pescador,
pescadora, fisherman, fisherwoman.
The gender of the following nouns of kindred is de-
noted by different words : viz., padre, madre, father,
mother ; marido^ m'nger, husband, wife ; 2^^(^f'<istr0j ma-
drastra, step-father, step-mother ; yerno^ nuera, son-in-
law, daughter-in-law ; padrino, Quadrinay god-father, god-
mother; hombrej muger, man, woman; soltero, doncellaj
bachelor, maid.
The following are distinguished by various termina-
tions : viz. emperador, empcratriz, emperor, empress ; rey,
reina, king, queen ; pnncipe, princesa, prince, princess ;
duque, duquesa, duke, duchess ; marques^ marquesOj
marquis, marchioness; co7ide, condesa, earl, countess ;
haron, haronesa^ baron, baroness ; ahad, abadesa, abbot,
abbess ; actoi'j actriz, actor, actress ; cantor, catitatrtz,
male and female singer, comadron, comadref man-mid-
wife, midwife.
LIST OF EXCEPTIONS IN THE GENDER OF NOUNS.
Masculine nouns ending in a.
Adema,
albacea,
alcabala,
almea,
prop,
executor,
excise duty,
storax.
anagrama,
aneurisma,
antipoda,
apotegma,
anagram,
aneurism,
antipode.
apothegm.
axioma.
axiom.
carisma,
divine gift.
clima.
climate.
cometa.
comet.
crisma,
chrism.
dia,
day.
diafragma,
diaphragm,
midrilf".
LBCr. VII. J
NOUNS—
GENDER.
43
diagrama,
diagram.
mapa.
map.
digama,
digamma.
metaplasma,metaplasm.
dilema,
dilemma.
minimista.
student.
diploma,
diploma.
paradigma
, paradigm.
dogma,
dogma.
paradoja,
paradox.
drama,*
drama,*
paragua.
umbrella.
edema,
oedema.
pentagrama,musical stave.
enigma,
enigma.
planeta.
planet.
entimema,
entymeme.
poema,
poem.
epigrama,
epigram.
prisma.
prism.
esperma,
sperm.
problema,
problem.
Etna,
^tna.
progimnasma, essay.
guardacosta, custom-house
sintoma.
symptom.
boat.
sistema.
system.
guardavela.
topsail tackle.
sofa,
sofa.
guardaropa
Avardrobe.
sofisma.
sophism.
idioma,
idiom.
tapaboca,
slap on the
jesuita,t
Jesuit.
mouth.
largomira.
telescope.
tema.
theme.
lema,
lemma.
teorema.
theorem.
mana,
manna.
viva,
huzza.
Masculine nouns ending in d.
Adalid,
a chief, leader.
cesped.
turf.
alamud,
door bar.
huesped,
guest
almud,
a measure.
laud.
lute.
archilaud,
species of lute.
sud.
south. ,
ardid,
stratagem.
t almud,
talmud.
ataud,
cofRn.
Masculine nouns ending in ion.
Embrion, embryo,
gorrion, sparrow.
morrion, murrain,
sarampion, measles.
* And all its compounds, as melodrama, etc.
t And all those which from their meaning denote males, as Papa,
anaboptista, etc. ; Fope, anabaptist, etc.
44
NOUNS-
— GEXDER.
[LECT. vn.
Feminine nouns ending in o
Anade,
duck.
fase,
phasis.
alache,
shad.
fe,
faith.
alsine,
chickweed.
fiebro,
fever.
anagalide,
pimpernel.
frente,
front, fo'.'e-
ave,
fowl, bird.
head.
azumbre,
a measure.
fuelle,
bellows.
barbarie,
barbarity.
fuente,
fountain.
base,
basis.
gcnte,
people.
calvicie,
baldness.
h ombre,
hunger.
calle,
street.
helice,
helix.
capelardente, funeral pile.
helgine,
Dellitory.
caridtide,
caryatides.
hemionite,
lemionite.
carne,
flesh.
herrumbre.
rust of iron.
catastrofe,
catastrophe.
hiperbole,
hyperbole.
certidumbre, certainty.
hipocistide,
hypoeistas.
chinche,
bug.
hojaldre,
kind of pan-
churre,
grease.
cake.
clase,
class.
incertidum-
uncertainty.
clave,
key.
bre,
clematide.
climber.
indole.
temper.
cohorte.
cohort.
ingle.
groin.
compage,
joint.
intemperie.
intemperate-
corambre,
hides.
ness.
corriente,
stream.
jeride,
xirys.
corte,
court.
lande.
kind of acorn.
costumbre,
custom.
landre,
glandular
crasicie.
fatness.
swelling.
creciente,
flood-tide.
laringe,
larynx.
crencbe,
the parting of
laude,
prafse. an epi-
the hair."
taph.
cumbre,
summit.
leche.
miik.
dulcedumbre, sweetness.
legumbre,
pulse.
elatine.
waterwort.
lente,
lens.
epipactide.
bastard helle-
liebre,
hare.
bore.
liendre,
nit.
esferoide,
spheroid.
lite.
litigation.
especie,
species.
Have,
key.
epigrafe.
epigraph.
lumbre,
fire.
estirpe,
race, or origin.
mansedum-
meeknesai
etiopide.
clary, an herb.
bre,
falange,
phalanx.
menguanto
. ebb-tide.
LECT. VII.J
NOUNS—
GENDER.
45
mente,
the mind.
salve.
salve regina.
mole,
mass.
sangre,
blood.
molicie,
effeminacy.
sede.
a see.
muchedum-
multitude.
serie,
series.
bre.
servidumbre
, servitude.
muerte.
death.
serpiente.
serpent.
mugre,
dirt.
sirte,
quicksand.
nave.
ship.
suerte,
chance.
nieve,
enow.
superficie.
superficies.
noche,
night.
tarde.
afternoon.
nube.
cloud.
teame.
kind of stone.
paralage,
parallax.
techumbre,
roof.
paraselene.
mock-moon.
temperie.
temperature.
parte.
a part.
tilde,
a tittle: aline
patente.
patent.
placed some-
peplide.
wildpurslain.
times over
pesadumbre
, grief.
the Spanish
peste,
the plague.
n, thus n.
piramide.
pyramid.
torre.
tower.
pixide.
pix.
trabe,
a beam.
planicie,
plain.
tripode,
tripod.
plebe.
rabble.
troge,
granary.
podre,
pus.
ubre.
udder.
podredumbre, rottenness.
urdiembre.
warp.
progenie,
progeny.
varicie,
varix.
prole,
issue.
velambre.
nuptial rites.
quiete,
repose.
vislumbre,
glimmering.
ealumbre,
oxide of salt.
Feminine nouns
ending in i or y.
Diocesi,
diocese.
ley,
law.
graciadei,
gratiola, an
metropoli,
metropolis.
herb.
palmacristi,
palmachristi.
grei, or grey
, flock.
parafrasi.
paraphrase.
Feminine now
%s ending in 1.
Aguamiel,
hydromel.
hiel,
gall.
cal.
lime.
miel,
honey.
capital.
capital.
piel,
skin.
carcel,
prison.
sal.
salt.
col,
cabbage.
senal,
signal.
decretal,
decretal.
vocal,
vowel.
46
NOUNS — GENDER.
Feminine nouns ending in n.
LLECT. VII.
Armazon,
stowage.
razon,
reason.
barbechazon,fallowing time
sarten.
frying-pan.
binazon,
second plough-
sazon,
season.
cargazon,
cargo, [ing.
segazon,
reaping time.
clavazon,
row of nails.
sien,
temple, (part
clin, or crin
, mane.
of the head.)
desazon,
uneasiness.
sinrazon,
injustice.
imagen,
image.
trabazon,
splicing.
plomazon,
a gilder's
cushion.
Feminine nour
18 ending in o.
Mano,
hand.
1 nao,
ship.
Feminine nour
IS ending in r.
Bezar,
bezoar.
segur,
axe.
flor,
flower.
zoster,
shingles (a
labor,
labour.
disease).
Feminine noui
IS ending in s.
Anagiris,
bean trefoil.
metamorfo-
metamorpho-
antiperista-
antiperista-
sis,
sis.
eis,
sis.
metempsico-
metempsy-
apoteosis,
apotheosis.
sis,
chosis.
bills,
bile.
mies,
crop.
colapiscis,
isinglass.
paralaxis,
parallax.
crisis,
crisis.
paralisis,
palsy.
diatrasis,
diathrasis.
parenesis,
parenesis.
diesis,
diesis.
polispastos.
engine to raise
enfiteusis,
emphyteusis.
weights.
epifisis,
epiphysis.
raquitis,
rickets.
epiglottis,
epiglottis.
res,
head of cattle.
etites,
sctites.
selenites,
selenites.
galiopsis,
dead-nettle.
sinderesis,
remorse.
hematites,
haematites.
sintaxis,
syntax.
hipostasis,
hypostasis.
tesis,
thesis. .
hipotesis,
hypothesis.
tisis,
phthisis.
lis,
fleur-de-lys.
tos,
cough.
macis,
mace.
LECT. VII.J
NOXTNS — GENDER.
<1
Feminine nouns ending in u,
Tribu, tribe.
Feminine nouns ending in x.
salsifrax,
saxifrage.
trox.
granary.
eardonix,
sardonyx.
Feminine nouns ending in z.
Cerviz,
cervix.
nuez.
nut.
cocatriz,
cockatrice.
paz.
peace.
codorniz,
quail.
perdiz,
partridge.
coz,
kick.
pez,
pitch.
cruz,
cross.
p6mez,
pumice.
faz,
visage.
raiz,
root.
haz,
bundle.
sobrehaz,
surface.
hez,
dregs.
sobrepelliz,
surplice.
hoz,
sickle, defile.
tez.
complexion.
luz,
light.
vez,
time.
matriz.
matrix.
vejez,
old age.
nariz,
nose.
voz,
voice.
niiiez,
childhood.
And almost all those nouns
ending in ez,
denoting qua-
lities in the abstract ; as b?
HllanteZj brilliancy; escasez.
scarcity ;
and many others.
There are also a few noun
s, of which the gender is nofc
generally
settled ; as some a
uthors consider them mascu>
line, and others feminine. TJ
le following is a list of tliem^
Albald,
certificate.
hermafro-
hermaphro-
docket.
dita,
dite.
anatema,
anathema.
hiperbole,
hyperbole.
arte,*
art.
mar,t
sea.
azucar,
sugar.
margen,
margin.
calor,
heat.
hema.
letter-seai.
canal.
canaL
6rden,:|:
order.
cisma.
schism.
pringue,
grease.
cutis.
skin.
puente,
bridge.
dote.
dowry.
tribu,
tribe.
emblema,
emblem.
* Arte is always feminine when used in the plural number,
f The compounds of mar are universally feminine ; as, bajamar,
low water; pleamar, high water.
i Orden is feminine when it means order in the sense of command.
48 NOUNS — GENDEE. [lECT. VII.
EXERCISE ON THE GENDER OF NOUNS.
[The Gender of the Spanish nouns will not be pointed out in the
exercises in future, as it is presumed the rules which refer to them
wiU enable the student to distinguish them.]
Self-love and pride are the offspring of ignorance.
amor propio orgullo son hijos ignorancia
Innocence, honour, and the love of virtue are estimable.
inocencia amor virtud apreciables
The summits of the mountains are very pleasant.
cima monte muy agradables
Cultivation contributes to the fertility of the soil.
contribuye fertilidad tierra
I require a footman and a maid- servant. My nephew
* necesito lacayo criada sobrino
and niece [are just arrived.] "Who is her husband?
acaban de llegar quien es su
Is that lady his wife ? His son-in-law, and daughter-
esa seiiora su su
in-law are going in company with the Marquis and
* ran en compauia de
Marchioness. The situation of the country. Tho
pais
treatise appears to have been written by an historian,
tratado parece * haber sido escrito por historiador
The Duke and Duchess were walking with the Earl
estaban paseando con
and Countess. Amplification or climax is a
[6 sea] graduacion
figure of speech that gradually heightens the
tigura retorica que [va subiendo de grado en grado]
circumstances of an object. They follow the same
circunstancia objeto * siguen mismo
system. He was decorated with the cross of honour.
* fue condecorado con
The symptoms of the disease. It is the custom of
enfermedad * os
LECT. VIII.] NOUNS— CASE. 49
the times. The brilliancy of their voices. The aridity
tiempo brillantez sus aridez
of that land. On the map are seen all the planets
aquel terrene en se ven todos
and comets recently discovered,
recientemente descubiertos
LECTURE yilL
CASE.
1. Case is that declension, orvariation, to which nouns
and pronouns are subject, in their different positions
with regard to other nouns and pronouns, or to verbs and
prepositions. For instance, a noun that governs a verb
is in a very di5'erent position, or case, from a noun that
is governed hj a verb. In the sentence, The man struck
me, it is obvious that the man is in a different position,
or state, from what he is in, I struck the man. In tho
first example he is in the case of governing the verb
to strike ; he is the agent of that verb ; but in the second
he is governed bg the verb, and is the ohjeci upon which
the action, or energy, of that verb falls. In the first
case he acts; in the second, he is acted upon.
2. Besides these two cases of acting, and being acted
upon, a noun or pronoun may be in the case of possessing
some person or thing ; as, Here is EdwarcVs hook ; in
which example Edward is the possessor of the noun hook.
It may likewise be in the case of having something sent
or directed to it ; as, / sent the letter to Henry ; where
Henry is the receiver of the noun letter. It may also be
in the case of having something separated, or taken away
from it ; as, He took the hook from the shelf; where we
see that the noun shelf is in the case of having something
taken away from it. Or, it may be in the case of being
instnimental in the performing of an action; as, The letter
was carried hy John; in which John is instrnnicntal in
50 xouNS— CASE. [lect. vhi.
conveying the noun letter. Here, then, are nouns exhi-
bited in five difi'erent iiositions or eases— namely, that of
acting, that of heing acted upon, that o£ possessing, that of
receiving, and that of having something separated from it,
and in being instrumental in the performance of an action
(the latter two being included by grammarians in one
case). These different cases are called, the Nominative,
Tvhich denotes the actor ; the Gexitive, ihe possessor ; the
Dative, the receiver ; the Accusative, the sufferer of an
action ; and the Ablative, either that "^hich has some-
thing separated from it, or that which is instrumental in
the performance of an action.
3. The names by which the cases are designated are
of Latin origin ; and the following is the manner in
which nouns are declined in Latin, Spanish, and
English : —
Nominative, . Dominus, El SeTior^ The Lord.
^^PossSiveI I^o^^^^» DelSenor, Of the Lord.
Dative, .... Domino Al Senor, To the Lord.
Accusative, | j^^^^j,^^ Al Senor, The Lord.
or Objective, )
Ablative, . . . Domino, Por el Senor, BytheLord.
We here see that, in Latin, neither article nor prejio-
sition is required to designate the case of the nouns, tho
terminations alone of the nouns being adequate to that
purpose ; but, in Spanish and English, prepositions and
articles are employed for this end.
Not always is tho same preposition used with the same
case in Spanish and English ; indeed, very frequently
a preposition is employed in one language, and not in
the other. This is a subject of some difficulty in all
languages; and, as regards the Spanish and English,
it will be amply treated upon in its place.
4. In addition to the above five cases, we see in Latin
grammars another case, called the Vocative ; as Domine,
O Senor, 0 Lord. But, however, indispensable this case
may be in Latin, it appears that it may be reasonably-
dispensed with in those languages in which nouns have
not the inflections of Latin nouns, since a noun in the
vocative case is evidently a nominative in a different
LECT. VIII.] NOUNS — CASE. 51
attitude ; for when we say 0 Lord, we make use of an
ellipsis, by leaving out the words that are wanted to make
the sense complete ; thus, 0 [thou who art the] Lord ;
and here we see that the noun Lord is the nominative
case coming after the verb art^ and who (the relative
pronoun) is the nominative lefore the verb.
5. The cases, as before observed, are designated in
Latin by the terminations of the noun ; in English, one
< case — namely, the possessive — is frequently formed by
the addition of an s with the apostrophe ; as, the LorcVs,
In Spanish, the noun itself never undergoes any variation
to denote case ; but pronouns frequently do, in both
Spanish and English.
6. We will now proceed to the explanation and appli-
cation of the cases. Observe, first, that the nominative,
being the case that governs, is itself never governed ;
the accusative is governed by verbs ; the genitive, the
dative, and the ablative are governed by prepositions.
7. A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case when
it names a person or thing in a state of being or doing
anything, at any period ; as, Charles is ill. He has
written a letter. The ship will sail to-morrow. In these
examples, Charles, he, and the shijj are each in the
nominative case ; the noun Charles denotes a person who
is in a state of being ill ; the pronoun he refers to a person
who has performed some action — namely, that of ivriting ;■
and the noun ship describes an inanimate object about to
do something — namely, to sail. Therefore the person or
thing that is, or that acts, is in the nominative case ; and
as being and action are expressed by verbs, the nominative
governs the verb, and is the subject or agent of the verb.
The following are some examples, in Spanish and
English, of nouns and pronouns in the nominative case :
Jose esta durmiendo. Joseph is asleep.
El escribe bien. He writes welL
Los drboles crecen. The trees grow.
Ellos ban hablado. They have spoken.
8. A noun or pronoun is in the genitive or j^ossesstve-
case when it describes anything as the possessor of any
person or thing ; as, MaricSs fan. His sword. Or when
it describes any person or thing to which another noun
531 NOUNS— CASE. [lECT. VIII.
relates; as, The laws of the country. The Prince of
Wales. In these examples, the noun Maria and the
pronoun his are in the genitive case ; the former being
the possessor of the noun fan, the latter of the noun sword.
Country and Wales are likewise in the genitive case,
because the noun laws relates to the first, and the noun
Prince to the second. Be, of, is the only preposition
employed in the genitive case. Observe that de. governs
the ablative case when it means//'0772, hy, out of etc., and
is only employed in the genitive case when it means
of See Par. 12.
The following are examples in the genitive case: —
El cabalio de Pedro. Peter's horse.
El reinado de Augusto. The reign of Augustus.
Su libro. Sus plumas. His book. Tlicir pens.
9. Those persons or things to which any thing is
given, sent, or directed, or for which any thing is intended,
are in the dative case ; as, I gave the book to Horace. He
sent James a present. Frederick bought the desk for Alfred.
They wrote him a letter. In these examples we see that
the nouns Horace, James, Alfred, and the persons re-
presented by the pronoun him, have respectively some-
thing given, sent, directed to, or intended for them ; and
that they are the receivers of the things so given, sent,
etc. Nouns in the dative case are preceded by the
prepositions a, or pnra — to, or for. Pronouns in this
case are sometimes, but not alwaj'S, preceded by
prepositions. See the Declension of Pronouns after
Par. 13.
Observe that a noun or pronoun in the dative case is
not the direct or immediate object of the verb ; that is
the action of the verb does not fall immediately upon it ;
it is the indirect object : the thing given, sent, etc., is the
immediate object of the verb, and is in the accusative or
objective case, as we shall presently see.
Examples in the dative case : —
Escribi al Capitan. I wrote to the Captain.
El lo compro para Elena. He bought it for Helen.
Le enviaran la carta. They will send him the
letter.
Ella les ha dado la noticia. She has given thcmthcwc^s.
LECT. VIII.] NOUNS— CASE. 53
Note. — The prepositions d and para govern the dative
case only when the noun which they precede receives
the benefit or injury of the action of the verb, as in the
above examples ; otherwise they govern the accusative.
SeePAK. 11.
10. A noun or pronoun is in the accusative or objective
case when it represents the person or thing affected by
some action done to it, or on which the action of the
verb falls ; as, James beat Henry. Charles vexed him. In
the first example, Henry is the object beaten ; the action
of the verb falls on him. In the second, the person
represented by the pronoun him is the object of the verb
to vex, and is affected by the action of that verb. All
nouns and pronouns in this case are the immediate or
dri-ect ohjects of the verb, as noticed before. Generally
speaking, when the noun in the accusative case represents
a person, it is preceded in Spanish by the preposition a.
See observations on this preposition, Pak. 13.
Examples in the accusative case : —
Ignacio ama d Carlota. Ignatius loves Charlotte.
He escrito una carta, I have written a letter.
Teresa le vio. Theresa saw him.
El la estima. He esteems hei\
11. Besides the preposition d, the following prepo-
sitions sometimes govern the accusative case — namely,
afite, contra, entire, hacia, hasta, para, segun, tras : Ex.
Eespondio d la carta. He answered the letter.
Comparecio a?ite el jucz. He appeared before the
judge.
Dio contra la pena. It struck against the rock.
Le halle entre la gento. I found him amongst the
people.
Yan hacia "Valencia. They are going towards
Valencia.
Fueron hasta Segovia. They went as/otr as Segovia.
Salio para Madrid. He set out /or Madrid.
Es segiin la ley. It is according to law.
Tras el Duque venia el After the Duke came the
Conde. Count.
The preposition por, through, by, also governs the
54 NOUXS — CASE. fLECT. YIII.
accusative when preceded by verbs denoting movement ;
as. Paso por mi ventana : He passed % my window. But
wben it is preceded by verbs that do not denote move-
ment, it governs the ablative case ; as, Lo hice por yerro :
I did it through mistake. Agrada por su cortesia : He
pleases bjj his courteous behaviour.
The preposition sohre, above, upon, likewise governs
the accusative when it denotes moral siqwiorii?/ ; as, Za
caridad es sobre todas las virtudes : Charity is above all
virtues. But when it denotes locality, it governs the
ablative ; as, Estd sobre la mesa : It is viion the table.
12. A noun or pronoun is in the ablative case when it
denotes a person or thing in the state of having some-
thing talcen away, or separated from it ; as, He drew the
money from his pocket. They separated the child from
the mother. Here the nouns pochet and mother are in
the ablative case, because each has had something taken
or separated from it The person or thing that is instru-
mental in the doing of an action, or that denotes the
means through, or hy which a thing is done, is likewise
in the ablative case ; as, He succeeded through the aid oj
his friends. The box was sent by the coach.
Besides the prepositions de, por, and sobre, already
mentioned, the following are also employed in the abla-
tive case — namely, con, with ; desde, from ; en, in ; sin,
without.
Examples in the ablative case : —
He recibido una carta de I have received a letter
mi socio. from my partner.
Trage este libro de la libre- I brought this book from
ria. the library.
Lo hizo de, or por envidia. He did it through envy.
Murio de una caida. He was killed by a fall.
La musica esta sobre el The music is vjwn the
piano. piano.
Pueron con el. They went luith him.
Vengo desde Granada A I come from Granada on
caballo. horseback.
Van en coche. They are going in a coach.
Estoy sin dinero. I am without money.
LECT. "9 III.] NOTJNS — CASE. ^5
OBSERVATIOIfS ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF THE PBEPOSI-
TION d IN THE ACCUSATIVE OR OBJECTIVE CASE.
13. Active verbs in Spanish generally govern a noun
in the accusative case with the preposition a, if it repre-
sent a person. The use of the preposition a is to point
out the immediate object of the verb, when it is not suffi-
ciently denoted without its assistance ; a circumstance
that very frequently occurs in Spanish, from the great
variety of syntactical inversion, which the language
admits, as will be observed by the following sentence,
which may, with the same words, be expressed in six
different ways, without altering the sense in the least ;
and where, but for the preposition, we could not ascer-
tain which of the two nouns was the nominative, and
which the object of the verb. (See Construction of
Nouns, Par. 14) : Ex.
Cain mato a Abel . .
Cain a Abel mato . .
A Abel mato Cain . .
A Abel Cain mato . .
Mato Cain a Abel . .
Mato a Abel Cain . .
Cain killed Abel.
When the immediate object of the verb is not an ani-
mate being, the preposition d is seldom used ; except,
sometimes, when both the nominative and the accusative
are of the same number ; in which latter case the pre-
position may be of use to prevent ambiguity : Ex. El
drhol abrigo d la casa : The tree sheltered the house.
Here the preposition points out casa to be the object of
the verb ; and if, the syntactical order of the sentence be
inverted, thus, A la casa alrigo el drhol, still casa appears
in the objective case; but if we dispense with the prepo-
sition d in the sentence as it now stands, its meaning
would be quite the opposite to what it was in its original
form ; since it would signify, The house sheltered the tree.
Sentences occur in which there are two nouns of the
same number, one in the accusative, the other in the dative
case, and both representing persons; as, We sent the
56
XOUNS— CASE.
[lECT. VIII.
captain to the inercliant. Now, if in translating this
sentence into Spanish we employ the preposition a
before both nouns, it would produce ambiguity, for we
should not know whether the person sent was the cap-
tain or the merchant. Therefore, to avoid obscurity in
instances of this nature, we should dispense with the
preposition in the accusative case, and employ it only in
the dative ; thus, Envidmos el capitan al necjociante ; and
not Envidmos al capitan al negociante.
Upon the whole, therefore, there seems always to have
existed a tendency to the general adoption of the prepo-
sition a before personal nouns in the accusative case.
And as regards nouns that do not represent persons, it
would be advisable to employ the i^reposition in such
instances only where the object of the verb is not suffi-
ciently conspicuous without it ; and, generally, where
ambiguity might result from its exclusion. This method
would be the safest to practise, and would harmonise
with the idiom of the Spanish language.
DECLENSION OF XOUKS WITH THE AUTICLE.
Masculine nouns referring to jKrsons.
Singular.
NoM. El hombre,
Gen. del hombre,
Dat. al hombre, or para el
hombre.
Ace. al hombre,
Abl. por, de, en, sin, con, sobre
el hombre,
Plural.
NoM. Los hombres,
Gen. de los hombres,
Dat. d or para los hombres.
Ace. a los hombres,
Abl. por, etc., los hombres,
The man.
of the man.
to or for the man.
the man,
by, from, in, without,
with, upon the man.
The men.
of the men.
to or for the men.
the men.
by, etc., the men.
lECT. vni.]
NOUNS— -CASE.
67
Gex.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
NoiT.
Gex.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
Feminine nouns referring to persons.
Singular.
La muger,
de la muger,
d or para la muger,
a la muger,
per, etc., la muger,
The woman.
of tlie woman.
to or for the woman.
the woman.
by, etc., the woman.
Plural.
Las mugeres,
de las mugeres,
a or para las mugeres,
a las mugeres,
por, etc., las mugeres.
The women.
of the women.
to or for the women.
the women.
by, etc., the women.
Masculine nouns referring to things.
Singular.
NOM.
El libro,
The book.
Gen.
del libro,
of the boot.
Dat.
al libro or para el libro.
to or for the book.
Ace.
el libro,
the book.
Abl.
por, etc., el libro.
Plural
by, etc., the book.
No:m.
Los libros,
The books.
Gex.
de los libros,
of the books.
Dat.
a or para los libros.
to or for the books
Ace.
los libros,
the books.
All.
por, etc., los libros,
by, etc., the books.
Feminine nouns referr
ing to things.
Singular.
NoM.
La carta,
The letter.
Gex.
de la carta,
of the letter.
Dat.
a or para la carta,
to or for the letter.
Ace.
la carta.
the letter.
Abl,
por, etc., la carta,
bv, etc., the letter.
d5
58
CONSTBUCTION OF NOUNS.
fLECT.
VIII.
Plural
NOH.
Las cartas.
The letters.
Gen.
de las cartas.
of the letters.
DAT.
a or para las cartas,
to or for the letters
Acc.
las cartas,
the letters.
Abl.
per, etc., las cartas,
by, etc., the letters.
CONSTRUCTIOX OF NOUNS.
14. In the natural order of the construction of Spanish
nouns, the nominative precedes, and the accusative
follows the verb, as is the case in English ; but this order,
for the sake of energy, elegance, or euphony, may be
inverted in Spanish at pleasure, placing the nominative
after, and the accusative before the verb. The latter
inversion, however, does not occur so frequently as the
former. The latitude of inversion of the syntactical
order which is allowed in Spanish gives to it a power,
facility, and beauty, which, perhaps, no other modern
language possesses to the same extent : Ex.
NOMINATIVE AFTER THE VEUB.
Con la precipitada ruina del
imperio de occidente vario
del todo el semhlante po-
litico de la Europa; y
cesando desde entonces
las relaciones y miituos
intereses de las partes
principales de aquel gran
cuerpo social, y quebran-
tados los eslabones que
unian las vastas provincias
del imperio con su capital,
que los debiles mortales
liamaban ciudad eterna,
se vieron como de repente
naeer, crecer, y levantarse
sobre las ruinas y escom-
bros del viejo imperio
todas las monarquias mo-
dernas. — (M.ieina — JEn-
sayo Hist. Cnt.)
With the precipitate ruin of
the empire of the west,
the political aspect of all
Europe changed entirely ;
and the relations and mu-
tual interests of the prin-
cipal parts of that great
social body ceasing from
that i^eriod, and the links
being broken that united
the vast provinces of tho
empire with tho capital,
which weak mortals called
the eternal city, all the
modern monarchies were
seen to spring up sud-
denly, grow, and raise
themselves on the ruins
and fragments of the old
empire.
I.ECT. VIII.] CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS. 59
Did voces la castisima Su- The cliaste Susanna then
Sana entonces, y viendo called aloud, and the dar-
los atrevidos viejos, etc. — ing old men seeing, etc.
(Lope de Vega. — Pastores de Belen.)
Asi, en todas las lenguas, Thus, in all languages,
arde el corazon, ciega la the heart kindles, anger
colera, emhriaga el amor. blinds, love intoxicates. . .
( — Capmany. — Filosofia de la Elocuencia.)
ACCUSATIVE BEFORE THE VERB.
Pocas cosas tenemos que no Few things we possess that
scan comunes a todos. are not common to all.
Tenemos muchas abili- We have many abilities
dades que feliz Jin nos that promise us a happy
prometen. — (Cervantes. end.
La Gitanilla.)
15. The genitive, the dative, and the ablative, always
follow the prepositions by which they are governed : Ex.
La casa es de Juan. The house is John's.
Enviaron la noticia d Pedro, They sent the news to Peter.
Iran con el criado. They will go with the ser-
vant.
The order of these sentences may be inverted, as far
as regards the position of the verb ; still, however, the
preposition must invariably precede the noun ; as, Es de
Juan la casa. A Pedro enviaron la noticia. Con el criado
irdn.
16. When in English two nouns follow each other,
the first specifying the kind, purpose, occupation, or the
like, of the other, their order is reversed in the transla-
tion, and the second noun in Spanish is placed in the
genitive case, preceded by the preposition de : Ex.
Mesa de caoba. Mahogany table.
Cerradura de puerta. Door-lock.
Eelojes de oro. Gold watches.
Oficial de artilleria. Artillery officer.
17. The same inversion of order is likewise observed
when one or more possessive cases follow one another in
English ; and the nouns are all translated in a retro-
grading order : Ex,
CO COXSTRUCTION OF NOTJXS. [lECT. Till.
Los rayos del sol. The sun's rays.
El caballo del padre de Juan. John's father's horse.
La hermana de la esposa de My uncle's wife's sister.
mi tio.
Sometimes the same order is used in English also ; in
such cases, whether the second noun be preceded by of
or by to^ it always requires de in Spanish : Ex.
Son primes del duque. They are cousins to the
duke.
El cumplimiento de las leyes The fulfilment o/the laws
del estado. o/the state.
If the English noun with the sign ('s) be preceded
by of, the preposition and article are required before
both nouns in Spanish. Should, however, one of the
nouns be preceded by a possessive j)ronoun, this supplies
the place of the article : Ex.
Dos de los criados del duque. Two servants of the duke's.
Uno de los ministros de su One of her majesty's mi-
majestad, nisters.
18. There are sentences in English in which the sign
of the possessive case ('«) is employed as a substitute for
the noun which it represents ; as, lie Jives at the geiieraVs;
where the 's occupies the place of house or residence ; in
such instances the order of the foregoing example is
observed in the translation j translating house, or resi-
dence, by casa : Ex.
Yive en casa del generaL He lives at the general's.
Yengo de casa del medico. I come from the doctor's.
EXERCISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS.
The human (2) heart (1) [is not satisfied] with what
humano corazon no se harta con
fortune or heaven [bestows on it]. The estimation of sati-
fortuna cielo. le concede. sati-
rical (2) works (1) increases with their prohibition,
ricas obra crece la
Valour is seldom found where modesty [is wanting],
valor [pocas veces se hallal donde " falta
LECT. YIII.] COXSTRUCTION OF NOUNS. 61
In any species of virtue one individual (2) act (1)
en cualquiera especie particular acto
[does not suffice] for a man to be virtuous. In
no basta para que * sea
war, judgment conquers more than arms. They
guerra entendimiento vence mas que arma
attacked the castlo on the [weakest side]. Good
acometieron Castillo por lado mas flaco. buenas
actions should exceed offences. This letter is for you,
obra [han de exceder] ofensa esta carta para
and the newspaper for me. The dispatches will go by
diario mi despacho * iran
the post. The two adversaries fouo:ht with pistols,
correo dos adversario riiieron pistola
She is [first cousin] to the ambassador of Austria's
prima hermana embajador
daughter. Here is your watch chain. The bed
hija aqui esta su reloj cadena cama
curtains were of India muslin. The front of the
cortina eran muselina frontera
edifice was adorned with marble columns ; in the
edificio estaba adornada de marmol columna ;
interior were seen several bronze statues. Show me
se veian varias bronce estatua [muestreme Vmd.]
tho straw hats, buck-skin gloves, and the silk
paja sombrero ante cuero guante seda
ribbons. My brother's house is situated near to the
cinta mi hermano esta situada cerca de
Governor's garden. He is at the shoemaker's. I
Gobernador * esta en zapatero Yo
saw (2) them (1) at the tailor's. I speak of the Duke's
vi los sastre * hablo Duque
brother's conduct. Anacreon flourished after
conducta florecio [despues de]
Homer's death, and after the defeat of Cioesus, the
Homero muerte,/. derrota Crcso
62 AGEEEilENT OF ADJECTIVES. [lECT. IX.
King of Lydia. Darius's son,Xerxes, ascended the throne
Eey Lidia Dario hijo Serses ascendio al trono
of Persia after his father's death.
su
LECTURE IX.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF ADJECTmiS.
GEXEEAL AGREEilENT WITH THE NOUN.
1. Adjectives, and participles used as adjectives, agree
in Spanish in number and gender with the nouns to which
they refer, as, Un Jiomhre alto, a tall man; u?ia m-uger alta,
a tall woman ; homhres altos, tall men ; mugeres alias,
tall women.
Observe that the plural of adjectives is formed in
precisely the same manner as the plural of nouns.
AGREEMENT IN NUMBER.
2. An adjective that refers to two or more nouns singu-
lar is used in the singular number if it precedes the nouns,
and in the pliir^al if it follows them : Ex.
El merecido aplauso y elogio \ The merited applause
El aplauso y elogio merecidos j and praise.
3. When the adjective refers to nouns of different
numbers, it is put in the plural if it follows the nouns,
and agrees in number with the Jirst if it precedii
them: Ex.
Su palacio y jardines hermosos ) His beautiful palaci
Su hermoso palacio y jardines ) and gardens.
Sus palacios y jaxdin hermosos ) Ilis beautiful palaces
Bus hermosos palacios y jardin ) and garden.
But should a verb intervene between the noun and
the adjective that precedes it, the adjective should be in
the plural number : Ex.
Inclusos van factura y cono- Enclosed are the invoice
cimientos. and bills of lading.
LECT. IX.] AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 63
AGREEMENT IN GENDER.
4. Adjectives agree in gender witli the nouns to wMdi
tliey refer, according to the following rules : previously,
however, to the pupil's becoming acquainted with them,
it is necessary that he should know how to distinguish
the gender of adjectives. This will be first explained.
5. Adjectives that terminate in an, on, or, and o, are
of the masculine gender ; those ending in an, on, and or,
are made feminine by the addition of an a ; and those
ending in o, by changing this vowel into a : those that
end in any other letter are common to both genders : Ex.
Un hombre haragan. An indolent man.
Una muger liaragana. An indolent woman.
Un muchacho jugueton. A playful boy.
Una muchacha^w^M^fona. A playful girl.
Un hombre emprendedor. An enterprising man.
Una muger emprendedora. An enterprising woman.
Un guerrero/«w^oso. A famous warrior.
Una accion famosa, A famous action.
El marido feliz. The happy husband.
La esposa feliz. The happy wife.
Un motive evidente. An evident motive.
Una prueba evidente. An evident proof.
Of those ending in or, the following are exceptions, as
they have only one termination : inferior, inferior ; mayor,
greater ; mejor, better ; menor, less ; peor, worse ; supe-
rior, superior ; and ulterior, ulterior.
6. Adjectives that qualify the feminine noun nada are
always used in the masculine termination : Ex.
Nada es mas contagioso que Nothing is more contagious
el ejemplo. than example.
Nada es mas cierto. Nothing is more certain.
7. To adjectives derived from the names of kingdoms,
countries, etc., ending In a consonant, an a is generally
added to form their feminine termination : those that end
in 0 change this vowel into a and those ending in e are
common to both genders : Thus, Ingles, m. inglesa, f.
English. Espaiiol, m. espanola, f. Spanish. Americano,
m. Americana, f. American. Ardbe, m. and £ Arabian.
8. When this kind of adjectives is employed in E-ng-
64 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. [lECT. IX.
lish with reference to articles of commerce, the produc-
tions of a country, and such like, the noun expressive of
the name of the country that produces those articles, or
in which they are manufactured, is generally used in
Spanish instead of tho adjective ; thus, Spanish wine,
Vino de JEspana. French Silks, Seda de Fiancia. Liter-
ally, Wine of Spain ; Silk of France.
9. The same construction is likewise generary oh-
served, in Spanish, in referring to persons of whom we
rather intend to describe the country from which they
come, or in whose government they are employed, th^n
the place of their nativity : as. El Emhojador dc Austria,
The Austrian Ambassador. El Consul de Espaha, Tho
Spanish Consul. This, however, must not be taken as
an absolute rule, for such sentences may also be trans-
lated thus, Seda Franccsa, El Consul Espaiiol, etc.
10. We have now to consider the aqrcemeiit of adjec-
tives in gender with the nouns which they qualify.
Adjectives that refer to two or more nouns singxdar, of
different genders, are employed in the masculine gender
a they follow the nouns; but agree in gender with the
first noun if they precede the nouns : Ex.
El egdrcito y la armada der- The army and navy dc-
rotados. feated.
La armada y el egercito(/er- The navy and army de-
rotados y datrmdos. feated and destroyed.
Su hermoso ejnsodio y no- His beautiful episode and
vela. novel.
Su hennosa y cntretenida no- His beautiful and enter-
vela y episodic. taining novel and episode.
11. When adjectives refer to Uoo or more nouns
plural, whether they are put before or after them, they
agree in gender with the nearest noun : Ex.
Las hermosas montanas y The beautiful mountains
valles. and valleys,
lios hertnosos y amenos valles Thebeautiful and pleasant
y montanas. valleys and mountains.
Los castillos y batcrias bom- The bombarded castles
bardeadas. and batteries.
Las baterias y c(75////os 56771- The batteries and castles
lurdeados y tornados. bombarded and taken.
LrcT.ix.] agheemext of adjectives. 65
12. When the adjective refers to nouns of diffhrent
numbers and genders, it is generally put in the plural
number and masculine gender if it follow the nouns, and
made to agree with the first when it precedes the nouns :
Ex.
El (inchiso) conocimiento y The enclosed bill of lading
facturas {indusos). and invoices.
Los (/7«cZwso5)conocimientos The enclosed biUs of ladin g
y factura (inchisos). and invoice.
La (inclusa) factura y cono- The enclosed invoice and
cimientos (inchisos). bills of lading
Las (inclusas) facturas y The enclosed invoices and
conocimiento {indusos). bill of lading.
Note. — We should nevertheless endeavour to avoid
qualifying two nouns that differ in gender and number,
with an adjective that admits of both the masculine and
feminine terminations. For instance,though we may see
examples of the following nature, Los vinos y la fruta
ertrn exquisites, — The wines and fruit were exquisite;
Las frutas y el vino eran exquisites, — The fruits and
wine were exquisite ; yet there is something in them
that offends the ear. In such cases it would be much
better to employ an adjective of the common gender ; as,
Los vinos y la fruta eran excelentes — The wines and
fruit were excellent ; Las frutas y el vino eran, admirables
— The fruits and wine were admirable ; or to employ a
corresponding adjective with each noun; as, Los vinos
eran exquisites y la fruta deliciosa — The wines were ex-
cellent and the fruit delicious ; L^as frutas eran delicio-
sas y el vino exquisito — The fruits were delicious and the
wine exquisite. — Grammar of the Academy.
13. Adjectives referring to the titles of individuals,
agree in gender with the ^persons to whom the titles be-
long: Ex.
Su Alteza esta indispuesto. His Highness is indisposed.
Son muy hondadosos sus Their lordships are very
Senorias. kind.
Su ^tea esta indispuesta. HerHighness is indisposed.
Son muy hondadosas sus Their Ladyships are very
Senorias. kind.
' 14. With nouns that are common to both genders the
66 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. [lECT. IX.
adjective varies to distinguisli the gender; as, Unjovcn
hermosoj A handsome youth. Unajdven hemiosa, A hand-
some
15. When the adjectives hueno, malo, and postrero,
precede a noun masculine singular, they dioj) the final o;
as, Un buen homhre, A good man. Un mal consejo, A
bad advice. El postrer dia, The last day.
Note. — See also the numeral adjectives i«wo, pritnero,
tercero, and ciento. (Lect. 12, Par. 1 to 4.)
16. Santo, saint, when employed in the singular num-
ber, before proper names of persons and places, drops
the last syllable, except before Domingo, Tomds, Tome,
and Toribio ; as, San Pablo, Saint Paul ; San Juan, Saint
John ; San Petershirgo, Saint Petersburgh ; Santo Tomds,
St. Thomas; Santo Domingo, St. Dominique.
17. Grande, great or large, when used before a noun
in the singular number of either gender, beginning with
a consonant, generally drops the final syllable ; and
also when, in referring to nouns, it rather conveys an
idea of size or quantity than oi greatness or excellence ; in
which latter sense it generally retains the final syllable ;
and also when the substantive which follows it begins
with a vowel or with h. This, however, is not to be taken
as an absolute rule ; as, Vn gran Castillo, A large castle.
Una gran fiesta, A great feast. Un gran cucliillo, A large
knife. Grande amor, Great love. Grande hazana, A great
achievement.
exercise on the agreement of adjectives in
ntjmber and gender.
Disinterestedness and honour deserve to be praised,
desinteres merecen *' ser alabado
Her virtue and her beauty are universally admired*
virtud hermosura son universalmente admirado
Modesty, afi'ability, and kindness are recommendable.
modestia afabilidad bondad son recomendable
[Let us reflect] on the sad consequences that are
reflexion emos en triste consecuencia que son
inseparable from protracted (2) wars (1). His fears
• ■ dilatado guerra temor
LECT. IX.] AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 67
were vain. The streets and squares of the city are
fueron vano calle plaza ciudad
spacious, and the public (2) buildings (1) magnificent,
espacioso publico edificio magnifico
It is a convincing (2) and palpable (3) proof (1). He is
* es convincente prueba * es
a brave (2) and faithful (3) man (1). She is very
bizarro fiel * muy
lazy. They live in a fine house [on the banks]
holgazan * viven en bella a orillas
of a rich (2) river (1), near a small village,
caudaloso rio [cerca de] pequeilo aldea
These are consolatory (2) tidings (I). They possess
estas son consolador noticia * poseen
considerable moral (2) strength (1) and heroic virtue ;
mucho fuerza heroiea
ardent (2) imaginations (1) and noble (2) hearts (1).
ardiente corazon
It is a happy (2) idea (1). He is a happy (2) man (1).
feliz *
sagacious (2) boy (1). A sagacious girl. A
sagaz muchacho
French (2) frigate (1) and a Spanish (2) schooner (1)
frances fragata espanol goleta
have arrived from the Danish (2) colonies (1). That
han llegado dinamarques colonia aquella
is a Spanish (2) cloak (1). Those ladies are
capa aquellas seiiora son
Portuguese. Spanish wool is considered very gobd. I
portugues lana se- considera muy *
have purchased some French goods. The Eussian
he comprado genero
Plenipotentiary and the English Ambassador had
Plenipotenciario tuvieron
a conference with the French Emissary. Honour and
conferencia Emisario
63 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. [LECT. IX.
virtue are solid. Fame and valour are celebrated. He
son solido fama valor celebrado *
has a b-eautiful house and garden. His usual
tiene su acostumbrado
haughtiness and pride. Such discussions and
altivez orgullo. tal
reasonings are frivolous. I do not give ear to tales
razonamiento son frivolo yo * no presto oido cuento
and stories so ill founded. His Holiness and their
historia tan nial fundado su Santidad sus
Worships Tvere escorted to their palaces. His
Dignidad fueron escoltado palacio
Lordship the Earl of B. was presented to Her Majesty
Senoria Conde fu6 presentado su Majestad
the Queen, who was attended by their Ladyships
que estaba acompanado de Senoria
the Marchionesses of E. The conscience of a good man
conciencia bueno
is ever free, but [that of a bad man] [is a prey to
esta siempre libre mas la del malo esta en un
continual remorse.] He preached from the epistles
cdntinuo remordimiento * predicaba epistola
of St. Paul. They came lately from the islands
Pablo * vinieron ultimamente isla
of St. Dominic and St. Thomas. A great project ! A
Domingo Tomas proyecto
great victory. That is a great deed. [I have no] greet
• victoria ese es hecho no ten^o
aj^petite. A large ship,
apetito navio.
LECT. X.] SirUATION OF THE ADJECTIYB. 69
LECTURE X.
SITUATION OF THE ADJECTIVE.
1. Adjectives in Spanish generally follow the nouns to
which they refer : Ex.
El objeto ^rmc?';?a/. ThQ principal 6h]QQ,t.
El egercito ingles. The English army.
tJna vida ociosa. An idle life.
2. To the foregoing rule the following instances are
exceptions, as in them the adjective usually precedes the
noun.
1st. Adjectives employed as attributes, or that denote
the natural or inherent properties of nouns, as also
those used as epithets : Ex.
Los hermosos colores del The beautiful colours of
iris. the rainbow.
El duro hierro. The hard iron.
El paciente Job. The patient Job.
El soberhio Lucifer. The proud Lucifer.
2nd. Adjectives accented on the antepenult; hence,
likewise, superlatives that terminate in isimo : Ex.
Su2yerfcda conducta. His perfidious conduct.
Son hermosisimas obr as. They are most- beautiful
works.
Que. bellisimo dia ! What a very fine day !
3rd. Numeral adjectives : Ex.
Veinte hombres. Twenty men.
La primera cosa. The first thing.
In referring to royalty and other dignities, however,
the numeral adjective /(y/Zoit's the noun : Ex.
Isabel Segunda. Isabelle the Second.
Gregorio Primera. Gregory the First.
4th. The adjectives todo, muclio, poco, pocos, cierto,
70 SITUATION OF THE ADJECTIVE. [lECT. X.
cada, varios, tal, dicJio, mismo, (all, mucli, little, few,
certain, eacli or every, several, such, said, same,) like-
"wise generally precede the noun : Ex.
Todo el mundo. All the world.
Todas las senoras. All the ladies.
Mucho dinero. Much money..
Muchas veces. Many times.
Poco merito. Little merit.
Pocas alabanzas. Few praises.
Cierto sujeto. A certain 2)ersoi:.
Ciertas indicaciones. Certain indications-
Cada individuo. Each individual.
Varias cosas. Various things.
Tal hombre. Such a man.
Tales personas. Such persons.
Dicho hombre y dichas The said man and
mugeres. women.
El mismo dia. The same day.
Las mismas ideas. The same ideas.
Cierto, nevertheless, in the sense of sure, generallr
follows the noun : Ex.
Es cosa cierta. It is a certain thing.
Son noticias ciertas. They are certain news.
3. The foregoing rules on the situation of adjectives,
are not to be considered as positive rules ; the situation
of the adjective depends much on taste ; as writers, for
the sake of energy, harmony, and variety, place the
adjective variously with respect to the noun which it
qualifies. As a general rule, it might be said that adjec-
tives in Spanish commonly /o//oz^ the noun, except when,
for particular emphasis or elegance, they are placed
before it. Eor instance, in the following example, Lope
DE Yega adds greater emphasis to the meaning of the
adjectives, and more elegance to the construction of the
clause, by placing them before the nouns : '^Entre otras
apacibles partes que alegraban y cmioblecian el ameno
sitio, era un espeso bosgue de blancos alamos,'^ etc. —
Amongst other pleasant parts that enlivened and embel-
lished the delightful spot, was a thick forest of white
poplars, etc. Again, Cadalso, in describing the local
LECT. X.] SITUATION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 71
situation of Spain, says, *^ Esta feliz situacion lahizo
ohjeio de la codicia de Jos Fenicios y otros pueblos.'^ — This
happy locality made her an object of the desire of the
Phoenicians and other nations. In which he no doubt
placed the adjective feliz before the noun situacion,
because it was his principal intention to express the
superiority of the local situation of Spain. In the
following sentence, Marina, in his Ensayo Historico-
Critico, adds more harmony, strength, and elegance
to its construction by appropriately placing some of the
adjectives before the nouns : ^^ El grandioso y magnifico
especiciculo de la Mutoria general de la especie humana,
y su varia y continuada perspectiva de acontecimientos
extraordinarios y trasformaciones politicasP etc. — The
grand and magnificent spectacle of the general history
of the human species, and its varied and continued per-
spective of extraordinary events and political transfor-
mations," etc.
exercise on THE SITUATION OF THE ADJECTIVE.
The sight of a fine landscape is an inexhaustible
vista bello paisage inagotable
source of delightful sensations. Various parts in
manantial delicioso — ^— — vario punto de
North America discover evident signs of remote
septentrional descubren evidente indicio remoto
epochs, and prove the existence of a great and powerful
epoca manifiestan existencia poderoso
people, whose history [is doubtless lost] for ever,
poblacion cuya historia sin duda se perdio para siempre
Immense heights, unfrequented by the modern Indians,
inmenso elevacion no frecuentado por moderno Indio
covered with human bones, unknown arms, remains
cubierto de humano hueso desconocido arma resto
of walled cities, and numerous inscriptions in unknown
circundado ciudad numeroso desconocido
languages, announce the indisputable existence of a
idioma, m. anuncian
72 SITTJATION OF THE ADJECTIVE. [leCT. X,
people, different from those which European navigators
pueblo diferente aquellos que europeo navegante
found in those countries. The fierce lion devoured
encontraron pais fiero ieon [devoro a]
the tame sheep. On that step of hard marble
manso oveja sobre aquel escalon duro marmol
she rested her weary limbs. The cold snow
* reposo sus fatigado miembro frio nieve,/.
withered the delicate flowers. My dear father ; where
marchito delicado flor,/. querido donde
ar© my dear sisters ? The wise Solomon ; the
estan mis hermana sabio ■
worthy Titus; the ambitious Alexander. "What
benemerito Tito ambicioso Alejandro
[a very fine] day ! The regiment consisted of twelve
bellisimo regimiento [se componia] doce
companies of fifty men each. They captured
compania cincuenta [cada una] * apresaron
all the ships and sunk all the gun boats,
navio [echaron a pique] canonera lancha
He made many friends, but contracted many debts-
* hizo amigo pero contrajo deuda
Many are the disappointments in the life of man. Few
son contratiempo vida
men are happy. His virtues are few. A certain friend
sus amigo
of mine gave (2) me (1) certain instructions resi^ecting a
* mio dio — • [acerca do]
certain person. It is a certain thing. Every day
persona * es cosa
you come you will examine each lesson. Such
[que Vmd. venga] * * repasara loccion
orders could never have been given by such a general.
Men * mas pudieran ser dadas
LECT. XI.] DEGEEES OF COMPARISON. 73
LECTURE XI.
DEGREES OF COMPARISOK
1. As adjectives express some quality or property of
the noun, this quality or property, when compared with
that of other nouns, may be equal, superior, or inferior
to it: for instance, Your cloth is fine, his is finer, but mine
is the finest of the three. Here are specified three dijfferent
degrees in the quality of the cloth ; these are called
degrees of comparison, and are distinguished by the names
oi positive, comparative and superlative.
2. The positive expresses the quality without any re-
ference or comparison, as in the foregoing example,
Tour cloth is fine ; but when we say his is finer, there is
a comparison drawn between the two ; and in the con-
clusion of the sentence, mine is the finest of the three, the
quality of the cloth is placed in the highest degree of
fineness as regards the three qualities.
3. In the comparative there are three states to be con-
sidered— namely, that of equality, that of superiority, and
that of inferiority; as. My house is as commodious as
yours ; Yours is more commodious than his ; His is less
commodious than theirs.
4. The superlative expresses the quality in the highest
or lowest degree : it is of two kinds, the one relative, the
other absolute. The superlative relative expresses the
quality of one thing with reference to that of others ;
as. This is the handsomest house in the square. But the
superlative absolute expresses the quality of an object
without reference to any other object ; as, This is a very
handsome, or a most elegant house.
FORMATION OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON IN
SPANISH.
THE COMPARATIVE.
5. The comparative of equality is formed in Spanish
by placing the word tan (so or as) before, and como (as)
after the adjective : Ex.
£
74 DEGREES OF COMPAEISOW. [lECT. XI.
El es tan rico como su her- He is as rich as his brother.
mano.
If an adjective follow the comparative instead of a
noun, cuan may be used in the place of como ; as, Es tan
t'igo cuan soberbio : or, Es tan rico como soberbw—'H.e is
as rich as he is proud. The latter form, however, is
more frequently used.
Generally speaking, nevertheless, cuan (which is ab-
breviated from cuanto, like tan from tanto) is mostly
used in the sense of the English comparative adverb howy
employed in admiration ; as in the following passage of
Er. AifT. DE Guevara, in his Eeloj de Principes, when
he proposes Marcus Aurelius to Charles V. as a model
worthy of his imitation : — Ved, Seremsimo Principe, la
vida de este prmcipe, y vereis cuan claro fue en su juicioy
cuan recto en su justicia, cuan recatado en su vida, cuan
aqradecido d sus amigos, euaii sufrido en los trahajos, etc. —
Observe, Illustrious Prince, the life of this prince, and
you will see how clear he was in his judgment, how cor-
rect in his justice, how careful in his living, how grateful
to his friends, how patient in troubles, etc.
In a negative sense, no other alteration is required
in Spanish than to place the negative particle before the
verb; and this applies to aU the following comparisons :
Ex.
No es tan fuerte como el It is not so strong as the
otro, other.
6. The comparative of superiority is formed by placing
the word mas (more) before the adjective, and que (than)
after it ; that of m/monYy, by menos (less) before, and
que after: Ex.
Es mas rico que su hermano. He is richer than his brother.
Es me'nos vana que hermosa. She is less vain than beau
tiful.
7. When both the comparative of equality and supe-
riority are used in the same sentence, the conjunction
expressed in Spanish should correspond with the last: Ex.
Mis libros son tan buenos My books are as good as,
(como), 6 mejores que los or better than his.
suyos.
LECT. XI.] DEGREES OP COMPAEISON. 75
8. When in English, the preposition hy is used in
comparing the dimensions of two objects, the sentence
takes a different turn in Spanish : Ex.
Esta sala es seis pies mas This hall is longer than that
larga que aquella. hy six feet.
Which means literally, This hall is six feet longer than
that.
THE SUPERLATIVE,
9. The superlative relative is formed in Spanish by
prefixing the definite article to the adjective in the com-
parative degree : Ex.
Era la mas hermosa muger She was the handsomest
que habia en la sala. woman in the room.
Note. — Sentences of this kind might also be expressed
in Spanish without the second verb, then, either the
preposition en, or de, may be employed ; as, Era la mas
hermosa muger en or de la sala.
10. The superlative absolute is formed by placing the
word muy (very or most) before the adjective in the
positive degree, or by affixing tsimo to the adjective in
this degree ending in a consonant ; those which end in a
vowel drop the vowel before they admit the tsimo : Ex.
Es muy hermosa muger. She is a very beautiful, or a
most beautiful woman.
Son corteszsimos. They are verg courteous.
Es helUsima idea. It is a very fine, or a most
beautiful idea.
Of the two manners of forming the superlative, that
in isimo adds greater strength to the meaning of the ad-
jective.
11. Some Spanish adjectives, in order to preserve
their primitive hard or soft sound, undergo a slight al-
teration in their orthography before they admit the ter-
mination isimo : thus, adjectives ending in co and go
change these letters respectively into qu and gu ; as chico,
chiquinimo ; amargo, amargmsimo. Those ending in io
drop these two vowels ; as amplio, ampUsimo ; except/no,
which only drops the o, as friisimo. Those ending in
76
DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
[leot.
hie change this syllable into lil ; as, amahle, amdbiUsimo.
And those ending in z change this letter into c ; a.&JeliZy
felicisimo. Acre changes into acerrimo ; antiguo into aw-
tiqvisimo ; benejico into beneficentisifno ; benevolo into hene-
volentisimo : celebre into celeberrimo ; fid into fidelisimo;
fuerte into fortisimo ; libre into liberrimo ; magnifico into
magnificentisimo ; mi&ero, into miserrimo ; mumfico into
munificentisimo ; noble into nobilisimo ; sagrado into sacra-
tisimo ; salubre into saluberrimo ; sabio into sapientisimo.
Some positives ending in iente drop the i when 2«mo
is added to them ; such are, ardiente^ ardentisimo ; fei'-
viente^ ferventisimo ; lucietite, luceiitisimOy valtente, valenti-
simo. Some adjectives having the diphthong ie in the
pfenult also drop the i ; as, cierto, certisimo ; tiemo, ter-
nisimo. Some few, as bueno, grueso, nuevo, fuerte, change
the diphthong ue into o ; thus, bonisimOj grosisimo, novi-
sijno, fortisimo.
12. The following comparatives and superlatives are
irregularly formed :
Positives. Comparatives.
Bueno, niejor,
Malo, peer,
Grande, mayor,
Pequeno, menor,
Bajo, inferior,
Alto, superior,
Mucho, mas.
Poco, menos.
Superlatives,
Optimo,
pesimo.
mdximo.
minimo.
infimo.
supremo.
Good,
bad,
( great,
( large,
t small,
little,
low,
high,
much,
little.
better, best,
worse, worst,
greater, greatest,
larger, largest,
smaller, smallest,
less, least,
lower, lowest,
higher, highest,
more,
less.
Of this list, the positives and comparatives may also
be formed into superlatives, by prefixing the adverb
rmiy to the positives, or by the addition of the termina-
tion isimo, according to the directions already given ; and
by prefixing the definite article to the comparatives ; as,
3Iuy^ bueno, or bomsimo, very good ; mvy malo, or
maUsimo, very bad ; el mejor, the best ; el i^eor^ the
worst.
And all the positives, except mucho, may likewise be
formed into comparatives by prefixing the adverb ma»
■LECT. XI.] DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 7/
to them ; as, Mas bueno, better ; mas malo, worse ; mas
grande, larger, or greater ; mas pequeno, smaller.
13. Comparison may also take place witli relation to
nouns, verbs, and adverbs, in the following manner.
14. The comparative of equality in relation to nouns,
is formed in Spanish by placing tanto (as much) before,
and como (as) after the noun : Ex.
Posee tanto talento como ella. He has as mwcA talent as she.
15. In relation to verbs, it is formed by placing tanto
cuanto, or tanto como (as much as) after the verb : Ex.
Gasta tanto cuanto, or tanto He spends as much as he
como gana. earns.
Or thus, Tanto gasta cuanto gana.
16. In relation to adverbs, it is formed by placing tan
(as) before, and como (as) after the adverb : Ex.
Escribe tan bien como habla. He writes as well as he
speaks.
17. As much, and as many, so much, and so many, re
each translated tanto, which agrees in gender and number
with the noun to which it is prefixed : Ex.
Tengo tantos libros y tanto I have as many books and
papel como ^1. as much paper as he.
I Porque tantas palabras f Why so many words ?
\ Hicieron tanto ruido! They made so much noise !
No necesito tanto dinero, 1 do not require so much
money.
Quite as much, and quite as many are translated
cuanto, which also agrees in number and gender with the
noun : Ex.
Tengo cuanto dinero y I have quite as much money
cuantos alhajas pudiera and as ??ian?/ jewels as I
desear. could desire.
18. So as, employed with an infinitive, require tan que
in the translation, and such as require tal que ; and the
English infinitive is generally rendered in Spanish by a
verb in the same tense as that in which the preceding
verb is placed : Ex.
78 DEGREES OP COMPARISON. ^LECT. Xt
La noche fu^ tan oscura que The night ivas so dark as to
no8 impidio el salir. prevent our going out.
Tal fue su conducta que ex- Such was his conduct as to
cito un disgusto general. excite a general disgust.
19. The comparative of superiority with relation to
nouns and adverbs, is formed by placing mas (more)
before, and que (than) after them : Ex.
Posee mas talento que ella. He has 7wore talent <^ aw she.
Lee www despacio que k\. She reads more slowly than
he.
20. In relation to verbs, it is formed by placing mas
que (more than) after them ; Ex.
Escribe mas que su herma- He writes more than his
no. brother.
21. The comparative of inferiority, in relation to nouns
and adverbs, is formed by placing menos (less) before,
and que (than) after them: Ex.
Posee menos talento que ella. He has less talent than she.
Escribe menos elegantemen- He writes less elegantly
te que su predecesor. than his predecessor.
No leo menos despacio que I do not read less slowly
Vmd. than you.
22. In relation to verbs, it is formed by placing menos
que (less than) after them : Ex.
Aprende m^nos que su her- He learns less than his bro-
mano. ther.
23. Than, after a comparative (either of superiority
or inferiority) coming before what, expressed or under-
stood, is generally translated de in the affirmative, and
que in the negative sense : Ex.
Mas de lo que ^1 tiene. More than what he has.
Menos de lo que creia. Less than what I thought.
No mas que lo que dije. No more than what I said.
Nada menos que lo que Nothing less than he de-
merece. serves.
24. Than, after comparatives coming before numeral
adjectives, is also generally translated de in the affirma-
tive, and que in the negative : Ex.
LECT. XI.] DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 79
Tengo mas de ciento. I have more than one hun-
dred.
No tengo mas que mil libras. I have no more than a thou-
sand pounds.
25. The more, the more ; the less, the less; the more,
the less ; and the less, the more ; being used in different
parts of a sentence, the latter part of the expression being
consequent on the former, are translated cuanto mas,
tanto mas ; cuanto menos, tanto menos ; cuanto mas, tanto
me'nos ; and cuanto menos, tanto mas : Ex.
Cuanto mas estudiamos tan- The more we study, the
to mas sabr^mos. more we shall know.
Cuanto menos lea Vmd. tan- The less you read, the less
to menos sabrd. you will know.
Cuanto mas lee, tanto menos The more he reads, the less
aprende. he learns.
Cuanto me'nos gastaren, tan- The less they spend, the
to mas ahorraran. more they will save.
Sentences of this nature may also be expressed in the
following manner : Mas lee, menos aprende ; or mientras
menos lea, menos sdbrd Vmd.
26. Most, or most of, and the greater part of ^ are trans-
lated as foUows :
La mayor parte de los hom- Most men, or the greater
bres ; or los mas de los part of men.
hombres.
La mayor parte del vino. Most of, or the greater part
o/the wine.
27. The superlative degree, with relation to verbs and
adverbs, is formed as follows : Ex.
Habla muy poco, or poquisi- He speaks very little.
mo.
Esta maUsimamente hecho, It is very badly done.
or muy malamente hecho.
28. There are some adjectives that have no compara-
tives and superlatives ; others that form comparatives, but
not superlatives ; others that form superlatives with the
adverb muy, and not with the termination zsimo. Numeral
adjectives have no comparatives, nor superlatives. Many
adjectives ending in I, as paternal, varonil, do not form
80 DEGREES OF COMPARISON. [leCT. Xt
their superlatives in isimo ; nor do many of those ending
in z, n, or r, as turqui, rum^ seevlar ; but these niceties
of language can only be learnt by use, and the reading
of good books.
EXERCISE ON THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
His progress was as slow as certain. My books are
su progreso era lento mis son
as good as his. Some consider Yirgil as
[los suyos] algunos consideran d Virgilio
great a poet as Homer ; and [it would be] very difficult
poeta Homero seria diiicil
to say which is entitled to greater praise. The poem
* decir cual es digno de elogio poema
of the former, called the Georgics, is the most perfect
* aquel intitulado Ge6rgicas perfecto
of all Latin compositions. In the Iliad and the Odyssey,
latino Iliada Odis^a
Homer has displayed the most consummate know-
[ha mostrado tener] consumado conoci-
ledge of human nature : he is the most ancient of aU
miento humano naturaleza * antiguo
profane writers. Nature has more charms than art.
profano escritor tiene encanto arte
The climate of England is more changeable than that of
clima, m. variable
Spain : the summer days in the former are much longer,
* aquella son largo
and those in winter much shorter. It is one of the finest
los de corto * es bello
novels that I have read ; its descriptions are of the most
novela que * he leido sus
beautiful, and its lessons ai'e very moral. The republic
hermoso leccion republica
of Athens was more illustrious than that of Lacedemon.
Atenaa era ilustre Lacedemonia
JECT. XI.] DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 81
The second Punic war lasted six yearsless than the
punico guerra duro
nrst. This is higher than that. His style is less
esto es alto aquello su estilo
harmonious than that of Father Isla. He is (2) not (1)
harmonioso el Padre
so obliging as his brother. Xerxes was more ambitious
complaciente su Serses era ambicioso
than prudent. The writings of Calderon are much
prudente escrito son
valued. The Philosophy of Eloquence of Capmany is a
apreciado filosofia elocuencia
most profound work. Some of Cervantes' most celebrated
profundo c^lebre
productions are his Don Quixote, his very beautiful
son su — Quijote sus
Exemplary Novels, his Journey to Parnassus, etc. The
egemplar novela viage al Parnaso
literary Fables of Iriarte contain most admirable
literaria fabula encierran
lessons. She is a very prudent woman. He is a very
leccion * prudente *
learned man. How very good he is, and how very bad
docto que *
he appeared. It is a most easy work to translate.
* parecia * facil obra de traducir
Gratitude is the noblest quality of the mind. Ingratitude
gratitud noble cualidad alma ingratitud
deserves the severest punishment. They read as much
merece severe castigo * leen
as they write, but they do not speak as much as they
* escriben mas * * no hablan *
think. Such was the confusion as [to endanger]
piensan fu^ - puso en pellgro
our safety. He made so much noise as [to oblige
nuestra seguridad * hizo ruido nos obligo
£ 5
82 DEGREES OP COMPAEISON. [lECT. XI.
us] to go out. We have as much money as you.
salir. * tenemos dinero Vmd.
She plays as well as she sings. She possesses more wit
* toca * canta * posee talento
than beauty. He has as much protection and as many
hermosura * tiene
friends as you. She learns better than her sister. He
amigo * aprende su *
thinks more profoundly than his contemporaries. The
piensa profundamente contemporaneo
more she reads the more she improves. Her sister has
* lee * adelanta tiene
less pride than she. The less you study the less
orgullo ella * estudie
[you will gain.] [It is not] more difficult to do than
ganara Ymd. no es dificil de hacer
what he says. I do not admire the style of Feijoo less
dice * * no aprecio estilo
than (what) it deserves. [It is worth] more than a
* merece vale
million. I remained in France and Italy more than two
me detuve
years. They speak Spanish less fluently than you.
* hablan corriente
He writes worse every time. [He does not give himself]
escribe cada vez no se da
the least trouble,
pena
LECT. "UI.!
NUMERAL ATJECTIVES.
68
LECTURE XII.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
CAEDmAL NUMBEBS*
TTno,
dos,
tres,
cuatro,
cinco,
seis,
siete,
ocho,
nueve,
dieZf
once,
doce,
trece,
catorce,
quince,
diez y seis,
diez y siete,
diez y ocho,
diez y nueve,
veinte,
veinte y uno,
veinte y dos,
veinte y tres,
veinte y cuatro,
veinte y cinco,
veinte y seis,
veinte y siete,
veinte y ocho,
veinte y nueve,
treinta,
treinta y uno,
cuarenta,
cincuenta,
one.
two.
three,
four.
five.
six.
eight.
nine.
ten.
eleven.
twelve.
thirteen.
fourteen.
fifteen.
sixteen.
seventeen.
eighteen.
nineteen.
twenty.
twenty-one.
twenty-two.
twenty-three.
twenty-four.
twenty-five.
twenty-six.
twenty-seven.
twenty-eight.
twenty-nine.
thirty.
thirty-one.
forty.
fifty.
84
NTJMERAli ADJECTIVES. [lECT. XH
sesenta,
setenta,
ochenta,
noventa,
ciento,
ciento y uno,
ciento y dos,
dos cientos,
tres cientos,
cuatro cientos,
cinco cientos, or
quinientos,
seis cientos,
setecientos,
ocliocientos,
novecientos,
mil,
dos mil,
tres mil,
cuatro mil,
diez mil,
cien mil,
dos cientos mil,
un millon,*
1« Observe that in compound numerals in Spanish it is
necessary always to begin with the highest number, and
descend gradually to the lowest, placing, the conjunction
y before the last ; as, veinte y tres, twenty-three ; dos
cientos treinta y una, two hundred and thirty-one ; mil
oclio cientos cincuenta y tres, 1853; consequently the
following manner, sometimes adopted in English, is
never followed in Spanish, namely, three arid twenty,
eighteen hundred and fifty-three, etc.
2. All the cardinal numbers except uno, and the com-
pounds of ciento, are indeclinable.
TJno agrees in gender with the noun to which it
refers, but drops the o when it immediately precedes a
noun masculine singular or its adjective : Ex.
* Millon, however, belongs rather to the class of nouns, and
;:r)verns the foUowing noun with the preposition de ; as, un millon dc
hombres.
sixty.
seventy.
eighty.
ninety.
one hundred.
one hundred and one.
one hundred and two.
two hundred.
three hundred.
four hundred.
five hundred.
six hundred.
seven hundred.
eight hundred.
nine hundred.
one thousand.
two thousand.
three thousand,
four thousand.
ten thousand.
one hundred thousand.
two hundred thousand.
a million.
LECT. XII.]
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
85
Uno de los documentos. One of the documents.
Una cuestion. A question.
CTwhombre ; un gran libro. A man ; a great book.
Ciento drops the last syllable when it immediately
precedes a noun of either gender. The compounds of
ciento agree in number and gender with the nouns to
which they refer : Ex.
y cien mu-
Cien hombres
geres.
Ciento y veinte libras
Dos cientos soldados.
Tres cientas escopetas.
A hundred men and a hun-
dred women.
A hundred and twenty
pounds.
Two hundred soldiers.
Three hundred muskets.
OEDINAL NUMBERS.
Primero, First,
segundo, second,
tercero, third,
cuarto, fourth,
quinto, fifth,
sexto, sixth.
B^ptimo, seventh,
octavo, eighth,
noveno, or, nono, ninth,
decimo, or, deceno, * tenth,
undecimo, or, onceno, eleventh,
duodecimo, or, doceno, twelfth,
decimo tercio, or, treceno, thirteenth,
decimo cuarto, or, catorceno, fourteenth,
decimo quinto, or, quinceno, fifteenth,
decimo sexto, sixteenth,
decimo septimo, seventeenth,
decimo octavo, eighteenth,
decimo nono, nineteenth,
vigesimo, twentieth,
vigesimo primo, twenty-first,
vigesimo segundo, twenty-second,
vigesimo tercio, twenty-third,
vigesimo cuarto, twenty-fourth
86
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
[lect. xn.
vigdsimo quinto.
vigesimo sexto,
vigesimo septimo,
vigesimo octavo,
vigesimo none,
trigesimo,
trigesimo primo,
cuadrag^simo,
quincuagesimo.
sexagesimo,
septuag^simo,
octagesimo,
nonag^simo,
centesimo,
cent^simo primo
centesimo secundo,
docentesimo,
trecentesimo,
cuadragent^simo,
quingentesimo,
sesentesimo,
septengentesimo,
octagentesimo,
nonagentesimo,
milesimo,
twenty-fifth,
twenty-sixth,
twenty- seventh,
twenty- eighth*
twenty-ninth,
thirtieth,
thirty-first,
fortieth,
fiftieth,
sixtieth,
seventieth,
eightieth,
ninetieth,
hundredth,
hundred and first,
hundred and second,
two hundredth,
three hundredth,
four hundredth,
five hundredth,
six hundredth,
seven hundredth,
eight hundredth,
nine hundredth,
a thousandth.
3. All the ordinal numbers agree with the nouns to
which they refer in gender and number : primero drops
the 0 when placed immediately before a noun masculine
singular, or its adjective : Ex.
El primer dia.
El primer buen tiempo.
El primero de todos.
Jjos primeros dias.
Las noches primeras.
El tomo segundo.
Las ordenes segundas.
The first day.
The first fine weather.
The first of all.
The first days.
The first nights.
The second volume.
The second orders.
4. Tercero or tercer may be indiscriminately used : for
we may either say el tercero dia, or el tercer dia,
5. Few persons now use the ordinal numbers in
Spanish after the tenth or twelfth, on account of their
LECT. Xn.] NTTMERAIi ADJECTIVES. 87
length ; instead of which, the cardinal numbers are em-
ployed. And with reference to the date of the month,
the ordinal numbers are seldom if ever used in Spanish
after primero, segundo, and tercero. — See Epistolary
Correspondence, in the Appendix.
6. Numeral adjectives referring to a noun or adjective
of dimension, require the preposition de after them : Ex
Dos varas de ancho. Two yards wide.
Tres pies de altura, or de Three feet in height, or
alto. high.
7. When the English numeral adjective that relates
to a noun or adjective of dimension is preceded by some
part of the verb to be^ this verb is rendered by tenerj to
have: Ex.
La mesa tiene tres pies de The table is three feet high,
alto, or de altura. or in height.
8. Six feet by four ^ twelve inches by eight, and so forth,
are translated literally; as, Seis pies por cuatro, doce
pulgadaspor ocho.
9. Besides the cardinal and ordinal numbers, we must
notice the collective, the distributive, and ii\iQ proportional :
but observe, that these are nouns, and not adjectives.
10. The collective denote a determined number of
things collected into one distinct mass or body : Ex.
Un par, a pair, or couple,
ima docena, a dozen,
media docena^ half a dozen,
una venitena, a score,
una centenaf a hundred
centenares. hundreds,
un miliar, a thousand,
un millon, or cuento, a million,
1 1 . The distributive denote the different parts of a
whole: Ex.
La mitad, the half,
el tercio, or la tercera parte, the third,
el cuarto, or la cuarta parte, the fourth,
el decimo, or la decima parte, the tenth.
88 NXTMEEAL ADJECTIVES. [lECT. XIL
el dozavo,orla duodecima parte, the twelfth.
dos tercios, two -thirds,
cuatro quintos, four-fifths.
tres octavos, three-eighths.
12. The proportional are such as denote the progres-
sive increase of things : Ex.
El doble, or duplo, the double.
el triple, or triplo, the triple.
el cuadruplo, the quadruple.
el quintuple, the five- fold.
el decuple, the ten-fold.
el centuplo, the hundred-fold.
Once is translated una vez; twice, dos veces ; three
times, trea veces ; and so on.
EXEKCISE ON NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
In the year sixteen hundred and eighty-seven the sea
en ano mar
retired from the shores of Peru, returning in tremendous
se retiro playa Peru volviendose tremendo
waves that destroyed [every thing they encountered] on
ola que destruyeron todo lo que encontraron en
the coast, and amongst other places the city of CaUao.
costa entre otro lugar ciudad ■
In seventeen hundred and eighty-six the same phenome-
niismo fenome-
non [occurred again], when out of four thousand souls
no volvio d suceder cuando * alma
that the said city contained, two hundred only were
dicho contenia solamente se
saved ; nineteen vessels were sunk and four,
salvaron buque fueron [echados a pique]
including a frigate, were deposited some distance
incluyendo fragata depositado alguna distancia
inland. Our voyage lasted eight and forty
[dentro de tierra] nuestro viage duro
LECT. XIII.] PREPOSITIONS USED WITH ADJECTIVES. 89
days, of which six and twenty were of contrary winds. Of
eran contrario viento
the thirteen hundred wounded more than the fourth part
heridos
died. A street of one mile long, by eighty feet wide,
murieron calle,/.
A tower two hundred feet high, by sixty in circumference.
( torre,/. circunferencia
The pedestal is forty feet square, and fifty-five high. [I
en cuadro
j was speaking] of a third person. This is a second
hablaba persona
warning. Three hundred and twenty-four pounds. One
aviso
dozen and a half. The first act. The first two scenes.
escena
The third year. Millions of men and hundreds of
women. Two scores of these, and three pairs of those,
estos aquellos
I went twice, if not thrice.
* fui fii no
LECTURE XIII.
PREPOSITIONS EMPLOYED WITH ADJECTIVES.
1. Adjectives are frequently followed by certain pre-
positions that govern the word to which the meaning of
the adjective is directed. This is a matter in which not
only do the English and Spanish languages often differ
as regards the preposition employed, but one that cannot
be reduced to any fixed rules. The following are some
examples from the Grammar of the Koyal Academy,
showing in their translation wherein the two languages
differ in respect to the prepositions employed in each ;
90 PREPOSITIONS USED WITH ADJECTIVES. [lECT. XIH.
Agradecido d los beneficios.
Fiel a, or con sus ainigos,
Igual a, or con otro.
Increible a, or /^ara muclios.
Ingrato a los beneficios.
Proximo a morir.
Visible a, or para todos.
Ageno de la verdad.
Agudo de ingenio.
Alto de cuerpo.
Ancbo de boca.
Angosto de mangas.
Bajo de cuerpo.
Boto de punta.
Bueno de, or para comer.
Capaz de, or para el empleo.
Chico de cuerpo.
Botado de ciencia.
Escaso de medios.
Facil de digerir.
Falto de juicio.
Impropio de, orpara su edad.
Inapeable de su opinion.
Infecto de heregia.
Inficionado de peste.
Largo de manos.
Ligero de pies.
Precedido de otro.
Amable con todos.
Amoroso con los suyos.
Atento con sus mayores.
Parco en la comida.
Ben^fico para la salud.
Grateful for kindnesses.
Faithful to one's friends.
Equal to another.
Incredible to many.
Ungrateful for favours.
On the point of death.
Visible to all.
Foreign to truth.
Acute in intellect.
Tall ifi stature.
Wide at the mouth.
Narrow in the sleeves.
Low in stature.
Blunt in the point.
Good to eat.
Fit for the emplojrment..
Small m stature.
Gifted with learning*
Scanty in means.
Easy to digest.
Deficient in judgment.
Unfit /or his age.
Obstinate m his opinion.
Tainted with heresy.
Infected with plague.
Liberal, openhanded.
Lightfooted.
Preceded bi/ another.
Amiable to everybody.
Afi'ectionate to one's rela-
tions.
Attentive to one's superiors.
Sparing at meals.
Beneficial to health.
2. It would be impracticable, from the uncertainty of
their application, to attempt to lay down a set of irulesto
apply to what custom has rendered so arbitrary and capri-
cious, and what can only be attained by practice, and the
constant reading of good authors. But though no fixed
rules can be given for the choice of prepositions to be em-
ployed with adjectives, the following general observations
LECT. XIII.] PREPOSITIONS USED WITH ADJECTIVES. 91
will, it is hoped, materially assist the learner on this
head.
In many instances a corresponding preposition with
the one used in English accompanies the adjective in
Spanish. The following are exceptions :
1st, Adjectives that denote ^roa;im% are mostly accom-
panied by a before a noun, a pronoun, or an infinitive :
Ex.
Junto a mi casa. Adjoining my house.
Inmediato d el. Close to him.
Proximo a caer. Near falling*.
2nd. Adjectives that qualify any particular part or
portion of the noun to which they refer are followed by
de: Ex.
Unacasacaanchac?emangas. A coat wide in the sleeves.
Un sombrero alto de copa. A high-crowned hat.
3rd. The same preposition is required after adjectives
coming before nouns or infinitives that denote the cause
that produced the effect expressed by the adjective : Ex.
Se mostro alegre de verme. He appeared ^?ac? to see me.
Esta pdlida de miedo. She is pale with fear.
Note. — As participles past are sometimes so nearly
allied to adjectives, it may not be deemed out of place
to mention here that they also are followed by the pre-
position de, and sometimes by por, before nouns or
infinitives that denote the cause producing the effect
expressed by the participle. The following are examples
of this nature from the Grammar of the Academy :
Aburrido de las desgracias. "Worried hy misfortunes.
Curtido del sol. Tanned ly the sun.
Impelido de la necesidad. Impelled hy necessity.
Importunado de, or por otro. Importuned by another.
Molido de andar. Fatigued with walking.
Penetrado de dolor. Pierced with grief.
Tocado de enfermedad. Touched with disease.
4th. Numeral adjectives also require de before a noun
or adjective of dimension : Ex.
Tres pi^s de altura. Three feet in height.
Dos varas de largo. Two yards long.
92 PUEPOSITIONS TJSED WITH ADJECTIVES. [lECT. XHI.
5tli. Adjectives are accompanied by en wlien followed
by nouns or infinitives that represent the objects or
actions in whicli the quality of the adjective is con-
spicuous : Ex.
Diestro en el juego. Expert at play.
Pronto en resolver. Prompt at or in resolving.
6th. Adjectives that denote fitness or unfitness are
accompanied by para before a noun, and by de or para
before an infinitive : Ex.
Prejudicial ;}ara la salud. Injurious to health.
Bueno de, or para comer. Good to eat.
7th. Adjectives denoting behaviour towards anybody
are generally followed by con, or para con : Ex.
Cortes con sus amip:o8. Courteous to his friends.
Amoroso para con los suyos. Kind towards his relations.
Ingrato con todos. Ungrateful to everybody.
Observation. — Although, as seen in the foregoing
examples, the Academy has assigned certain prepositions
to accompany certain adjectives, it does not necessarily
follow as a rule that they must in all cases be accom-
panied by the same preposition; since the same adjective
may frequently be followed by various prepositions, ac-
cording to the relation which it may have with the word
governed by the preposition; as, for instance, the adjec-
tive lueno may be accompanied by de, con, or para, as
the occasion may require : Ex. Bueno de comer — Good
to eat. Bueno para la salud — Conducive to health. El
es muy bueno con los sui/os — He is very kind to his rela-
tions. In a like manner the adjective duro may be
accompanied by de, en, or con : Ex. Duro de entendimiento
— -Hard o/ understanding. Duro en sus palabras — Harsh
in his words. Duro con sus inferiores — Severe towards his
inferiors. See also Employment and Governnvent of
Prepositions, Lect. 30.
LECT. XIV.]
PEKSONAL PE0N0TJN3,
93
LECTURE XIV.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
1. Pronouns are generally classed under six different
heads — namely, personal, possessivCj demonstrative^ rela-
tivey interrogative, and indefinite.
PERSONAL PRONOUIfSi
2. Personal pronouns are those that are employed in
reference to persons whose places they supply. There
are three persons— the first, or the person that speaks ;
the second, or the person spoken to: and the third, or the
person spoken of; as, I wrote the letter, you read it, and
he delivered it.
3. Personal pronouns are subject to a variation of
number, person, gender, and case, as follows :
DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
First person singular number, common to both genders,
NoM. Yo . I.
Gen. de mi of me.
Dat. a mi, or para mi, me . to or for me.
Ace. me, or d mi . . . . me.
Abl. por mi by me.
First person plural number.
Mas.-
-NoM.
Nosotros
We.
Gen.
de nosotros ....
of us.
Dat.
a or para nosotros, nos
to or for us.
Ace.
nos, or a nosotros . .
us.
Abl.
por nosotros ....
by us.
Fem.~
~N0M.
Nosotras
We.
Gen.
de nosotras ....
of us.
Dat.
d or para nosutras, nos
to or for us.
Aco.
nos, or a nosotras . .
us.
Abl.
por nosotras ....
by us.
94
PEESONAI* PRONOTINS.
[lEOT. XIV.
Second person singular numler, common to both genders.
NoM. Tu Thou.
Gen. de ti of thee.
Dat. d ti, or para ti, te . . to or for thee.
Ace. te, or kii thee.
Abl. por ti by thee.
Second person plural number.
Mas. — NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
Fern. — NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
Vosotros . . .
de vosotros . .
d, or para vosotros,
OS, or a vosotros
per vosotros . ,
Vosotras . . .
de vosotras . .
i or para vosotras
OS, or d vosotras
por vosotras . .
OS
08
You or ye.
of you.
to or for you,
you.
by you.
You or ye.
of you.
to or for you.
you.
by you.
Third person masculine gender.
Sing. — NoM. El He.
Gen. de ^1 of him.
Dat. k €\, or para ^1, le . . to or for him.
Ace. le, or d el hira.
Abl. por ^1 by him.
P/w.— NoM. Ellos They.
Gen. de ellos of them.
Dat. d ellos, or para ellos, les to or for them.
Ace. los, or a ellos . . . them.
Abl. por ellos by them.
Third person feminine gender.
Sing. — NoM. Ella She.
Gen. de ella of her.
Dat. a ella, or para ella, le . to or for her.
Ace. la, or a ella .... her.
Abl. por ella by her.
LEOT. XIV.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 96
Plur, — ^NoM. Ellas They.
Gen. de ellas of them.
Dat. d ellas, or para ellas, les to or for them.
Ace. las, or k alias. , . . them.
Abl. por ellas by them.
Third person neuter gender .
NoM. Ello It.
Gen. de ello of it.
Dat. d ello, or para ello, lo , to or for it.
Ace. lo, or a ello .... it.
Abl. por ello by it
The neuter pronoun has no plural.
4. The third person is also used reflectively, declined
without the nominative case, and is common to all gen-
ders and numbers : Ex.
Gen. De si .... Of oneself, himself, herself,
itself, or themselves,
Dat. d si, or para si, se to or for oneself, etc.
Ace. se, or d si . . . oneseK, etc.
Abl. por si by oneself, etc.
5. Nos may sometimes be seen used in the nomina-
tive case, instead of nosotros, and vos instead of vosotros ;
but this practice is antiquated. In poetry, also, dely
delloSf deltas, and dello, are sometimes used instead of de
el, de ellos, de ellas, and de ello.
Note. — Care should be taken never to misapply the
pronouns of the dative and accusative cases of the third
person. The dative is always le, les in both genders,
and the accusative le, los in the masculine, and la, las in
the feminine. This is noticed here because they have
frequently been confounded, even by writers of merit.
In order to distinguish immediately the dative from the
accusative case in personal pronouns, observe the follow-
ing : When the action of a verb falls immediately on the
pronoun, it is the direct object of the verb, and is in the
accusative case ; but when the energy of the verb falls on
any other word in the sentence, the pronoun will be the
indirect object, and therefore in the dative case, and the
96 pehsonal pronouns. [lect. xiv.
word on wliicli the energy of the verb falls will be the
accusative case ; as, To le di el libro — I gave him, or her
the book. To les di el libro — I gave them the book. In
these examples the pronouns le and les are in the dative
case, because the action of the verb does not fall on them;
it falls on the noun libro ; but in the four following
examples the pronouns are in the accusative case, because
the action of the verb does fall on them. El le llamo
— He called him. El los llamo — He called them. El
la llamo — He called her. El las llaino—He called them.
6. The neuter pronoun lo, of the accusative case, is
often employed by the best of writers and speakers in-
stead of the masculine le. Yet, properly speaking, lo
should only be employed in reference to something of
which the gender is not denoted ; as, for instance, Ya
lo sabia yo — I knew it already. Here the lo refers to
some circumstance understood, connected with the verb
sabia ; and in the following example it refers also to
something of which the gender is unknown to the
speaker : Que es eso f — Permitame Vmd. que lo vea —
What is that ? — Allow me to see it.
Before we dismiss the neuter pronoun lo, it must be
observed that it is sometimes employed in reference to
a whole, or part of a sentence, and then it is equivalent
to so, or it : Ex.
Dicen que habrd guerra ; They say there will be
pero yo no lo creo. war, but I do not think
so; or, I do not believe it.
Quien lo dice ? Los papeles Who says so ? The papers
lo dicen. mention it.
7. The pronoun se is frequently employed in the third
person singular and plural in any of the tens 'S, to form
the passive voice : Ex.
El dinero se recibira. The money will be received.
^e han recibido los libros. The books have been re-
ceived. J
(See Observations on the Passive Yoice, Lect. 24,
Par, 7.)
lECT. XIV.] PERSONAIi PRONOXTNS. ^7
PERSONAL PRONOTJNS IN THE NOMINATIVE CASE.
8. Personal pronouns in the nominative case, in the
natural construction of the language, precede the verb in
Spanish ; as, Yo hablo — I speak. Tu has venido — Thou
hast come. El tomard — He will take. Nosotros somos
vistos — AVe are seen. Vbsotros prometisteis — You pro-
mised. Ellos irdn — They will go.
9. This natural order of placing the pronoun in the
nominative case before the verb, may, for the sake of
elegance, or to add greater energy to the expression, be
inverted. Indeed, the natural construction of the Spanish
language admits of great variety of syntactical inversion,
as regards several of the other parts of speech, as we have
already seen with the nominative and accusative with
regard to the noun and verb, and with the substantive
and adjective, and as we shall further see as -we arrive at
the other parts of speech respectively. Custom seems to
have established as a rule, that the word we would have
appear the most conspicuous in a sentence should take
precedence of those with which it has relation. This
licence is allowed a much wider latitude in Spanish than
in English ; and writers that know how to avail them-
selves of it with judgment, are able to display the variety,
elegance, and force of expression, of which the Spanish
language is capable. The following are some examples of
placing the nominative pronoun after the verb : —
Antesque me dels la emba- Before you deliver me, illus-
jada, ilustre capitan y trious captain and brave
valerososestrangeros,del strangers, the embassy
principe grande que os from the great prince who
envia, deheis vosotros^ y has sent you, you should,
deho yo, desestimar y and so should I, disre-
poner en olvido lo que ha gard and forget what
divulgado la fama de rumour has spread res-
nuestras personas y cos- pecting our persons and
tambres. — (Soli's — Ra- customs.
zonamiento de Montezuma a Cortes.')
Quisiera yo saber ei la pu- I should like to know if my
pila de mi docto hermano learned brother's pupil
' eeria capaz de proceder could act in this manner,
asi que comprenda .... that he may under'
9g PEESONAL PR0N0TJN8. [lECT. XIV,
bien que soy yo la que se stand well that it is 1
lo dice. — (MoEATiN — who tell him so.
Escuela de los Maridos.)
10. In interrogative sentences, personal pronouns
generally follow the verb in Spanish : Ex.
g* EuhJo el con ella ? Did he speak to her ?
g- Estdn ellos acqui ? Are they here ?
11. Personal pronouns in the imperative mood likst
wise usually follow the verb in Spanish : Ex.
Venga Vmd. conmigo. Come with me.
Hagamos nosotros nuestro Let us do our duty,
deber.
12. Personal pronouns are generally omitted in Spanislz
in the nominative case, unless they be the emphatical
words in the sentence, or when their omission would
create ambiguity : Ex.
Mira, hermano, si no qui- Look, brother, unless you
eres que rinamos muy de wish us to quarrel in right
veras, no hahUmos mas earnest, let us talk no
del asunto .... more on the subject ....
I No es ella mi sobrina ; no Is she not my niece ; art
eres tu mi hermano ?— thou not my brother ?
(MoRATiN — La Morgigata.)
In the first example, the termination of the verb quieres
denotes its nominative to be of the second person singular,
and those of rinamos and hablemos the first person plural,
and therefore the pronouns tu and nosotros are dispensed
with as unnecessary. In the second example, ella and tu
are emphatically used, and are therefore expressed. In
the sentence El escribe y ella canta (He writes and she
sings), both verbs being in the third person singular, the
omission of the pronouns would create ambiguity as
regards the gender of their nominatives. And in the fol-
lowing sentence, Es muy hermosa (She is very beautiful),
the verb es denotes its nominative to be of the third
person singular, while the feminine termination of the
adjective hermosa marks its gender.
13. The nominative case of impersonal verbs (which is
the neuter pronoun ello) is most generally suppressed in
Spanish : Ex.
LECT. XIV.] PERSONAL PRONOTIN-S. 99
Parece que Uoverd hoy. It appears that it will rain
to-day.
Es precise que vayamos. It is necessary that we go.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN THE DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE
CASES.
14. The pronouns me, te, le, la, lo, nos, os, Us, las, los,
se, in the dative and accusative cases, are placed aft^
and joined to the verb in the infinitive and imperative
moods and the participle active : Ex.
Dat. — Voya darle la pluma. I am going to give him the
pen.
Enseneme Vmd. el Show me the book.
libro.
Escrihiendonos una In writing us a letter,
carta.
Ace. — Quiere Ymd. verle ? Do you wish to see him ?
Trdiganla Vmds. Bring her here,
aqui.
Estan maltratdndo- They are ill-treating them.
los.
Note 1 . — When, however, the imperative is in the third
person singular or plural, except if the nominative be
Vmd. ; the pronouns in the dative and accusative cases
u^uBWy precede the verb with the conjunction que : Ex.
Que me diga el. Let him tell me.
Que ella las traiga. Let her bring them.
Note 2. — As the infinitive and participle active are
governed by some other verb in the sentence, it is op-
tional to place the governed pronoun either after the
governed verb, as in the above examples, or before the
governing verb, as follows : Le voy a dar la pluma.
g Le quiere Vmd. ver ? Los estan maltratando.
15. The first and second persons plural of the verb
in the imperative mood, drop the final letter when nos
and OS are aflS.xed to them ; as, salve'monos, let us save
ourselves; instruios, instruct yourselves; instead of
salvemosnoSf instruidos.
100 PERSONAL PRONOtTNS. f^^CT. XIV.
On all other occasions, the foregoing pronouns are
most generally placed before the verb : Ex.
Dat. — 'klnos did la noticia. He gave us the news,
Yo le he escrito la I have written him the
carta. letter.
Ellos me enviaron el They sent me the book.
libro.
A.CC. — Nosotros le vimos. We saw him.
Ellos se han lasti- They have hurt themselves.
mado.
El la acompanard. He will accompany her.
16. However, to give energy to the expression, the
syntactical order of the pronouns in the dative and ac-
cusative cases may be inverted, especially when a
sentence or clause begins with a verb : Ex.
Sentose d comer con su He sat down to dine with
esposa, reprimiendo el his wife, repressing his
dolor en el pecho. — grief within his bosom.
(Quintan A — Vtda de Espanoles Celebres.)
Dirdsme que la docilidad You will tell me that mild-
declina muchas veces en ness often degenerates
ligereza. — (Feijoo — Te- into levity.
atro Critico.)
The like sometimes occurs in poetry ; even though
not at the beginning of a sentence : Ex.
Todos OS inmbrid los rostros, All of you cover your faces,
Que es diligencia impor- For it is of great import-
tante, etc. — (Calderon ance, etc.
— La Vida es Sueno.)
Ten tii lastima de ti, Have thou pity on thyself,
Fernando, y tendrela yo. — Fernando, and then will I.
(Idem— ^/ Principe Constanie.)
But such constructions as the two latter examples
would now be considered as archaisms, and could only
be tolerated in poetry.
17. When an English sentence has two pronouns
following each other, the first in the accusative, the
second in the dative case, their order must be reversed in
the ti-anslationj observing, that in such instances the third
LEOT. XIV.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 101
person singular or plural, of the dative case is, for the
Bake of euphony, translated se : Ex.
fil me lo did.
He gave it to me.
Os los mostrare.
I will show them to you.
Ellos nos lo dijeron.
They told it to tis.
Yo te lo dar^.
I will give it to thee.
Ellos me los han enviado.
They have sent them to me.
Be lo eecribir^.
I will write it to him, her, or
them.
Se lo he dicho.
I have told it to him, her, or
them.
Te la enviaremos.
We will send her to thee.
Voy d decir Oslo.
I am going to tell it to you.
En diciendo?we/o.
In telling it to me.
Yuelvemelos,
Beturn them to me.
"En&ensiselos.
Show them to him, her, or them.
18. We have now to consider those personal pro-
nouns of the dative and accusative cases that are pre-
ceded by a preposition — namely, a mi, a ti, a el, a ella,
d ello, a si, a nosotros, a nosotras, a vosotros, a vosotras,
a ellos, a ellas. These pronouns are frequently employed
with the other class of pronouns of the dative and accu-
sative cases before mentioned : their use is either to place
the direct or indirect object of the verb in a more con-
spicuous light, or to distinguish more particularly the
gender of the object : Ex.
La llevaron a ella a su casa, They took her to her house,
y a mi me enviaron al and sent w^ to the office.
despacho.
Yo le escribi a el con prefe- I wrote to Am in preference.
rencia.
In the first example, the additional pronouns a ella
and a mi individualise more particularly the objects of
the verbs ; and in the second, a el determines the gender
of the object j for without this explanatory pronoun, U
escrihi would be ambiguous in its meaning, and signify
either I wrote to him, or I wrote to her.
19. These pronouns are frequently employed by them-
selves in the dative case j they are also required after
comparatives: Ex.
102 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. [UECT. XIV.
De Vmd, el libro d el, y la Give the book to him, and
carta a ella. the letter to her.
Nos han dado menos que a They have given us less
ell OS. than them.
20, There is in English what is called the emphatic
word of a sentence, and an English phrase may have as
many significations as it contains words, according as to
which of the words is pronounced emphatically. This is
not the case in Spanish, in which there is no emphatical
word ; and what is elfected in English by emphasis, re-
quires circumlocution in Spanish. Take for instance the
following :
^Es cierto que la vio esta Die? he see her this morning?
manana ?
^La vio el esta manana ? Did hesQQ her this morning?
^Es que la vio esta maiiana? Did heseeherthis morning?
^La vio d ella esta maiiana? Didhesee/<er this morning?
^La vio esta misma maiiana? Didhesee her ^^wmorning?
^Fue esta manana que la Did he see her this mormn^?
vio ?
PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN THE GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE
CASES.
21. There is nothing very particular to be observed in
the employment of personal pronouns in these two cases :
they are always preceded by prepositions that govern
them, as seen in the declensions. Observe, however,
that when mi, ti, si are preceded by con, they are written
thus — conmigo, with me, or with myself ; contigo, with
thee, or with thyself; consigo, with him, her, or them; or
"with himself, herself, or themselves : Ex.
El habla conmigo. lie speaks with, or to me.
Lo Uevar^ conmigo. I will take it with me.
Yo hablo contigo. I speak to thee.
^Hablas contigo? Dost thou speak to thyself?
El me lleva consigo. He takes me with him.
Ella habla consigo. She speaks to herself.
In each of the last two examples the nominative of the
verb and the pronoun sigo, refer to the same person ; but
fihould they refer to different individuals, then, instead of
LECT. XIV.] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 103
consigo we must say con elj con ellaj con elloSj or con ellas :
Ex.
Hablo con el, ella, ellos, I speak to him, her, or
ellas. them.
Ella habla con el, etc. She speaks to him, etc.
EXERCISE ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
I have a book. Thou [wilt come] to-morrow. He
tengo vendras manana
and she [will be] here to-day. We m. have written,
estaran aqui hoy hemos escrito
We /. have told the truth. You m, are happy,
dicho verdad sois dichoso
You/, [will follow.] They m. answered. They /.
seguireis respondieron
heard. He came, said he, but it was too late. They
oyeron vino dijo pero fu6 muy tarde
knew (2) not (1) what to choose. Art thou there?
sabian no que * escoger estas alii
Who is he ? What are they ? Go thou. Stay ye
quien es qu6 son ve quedad
here. He returned within an hour. He was more
volvio [dentro de] hora fue
unfortunate than guilty. They lost ; we did not
desgraciado delincuente perdieron *
lose. We had [set off] before they arrived,
perdimos habiamos partido [antes que] llegasen
He came to pay me the debt. I went to see him. He
pagar deuda fui ver
cannot accuse us. Give us some wine. Examine
[nopuede] acusar da examinad
yourselves well. Let us arm ourselves with patience,
bien * armemos de paciencia
They were persuading me. I [should like] to
estaban persuadiendo quisiera *
104 PERJONAL PRONOUNS. [lEOT. Xr7.
know liim. Bring her here. Comfort thyself and
conocer trae consuela
listen to me. They are preparing him. He was
escucha estan preparando estaba
beating her. We paid them. I have spoken to her.
pegando pagamos he hablado
Vice deceives us. Prosperity gains us friends, but
engana prosperidad grangea amigo mas
adversity tries them. I accompanied
adversidad [pone a la prueba] acompan^
her [as far as] her house. I related to him all her
hasta conte todo
history. I brought a letter and gave it to her. Here
historia trage di
are the drawings, show them to them. I have repre-
estan dibujo muestre repre-
sented it to her. Having referred it to me. They
sentado habiondo roferido
[would have] repeated it to us. [Wilt thou refuse] it to
habrian repetido negards
them. I saw Acr, but could (2) not (1) see him. I
vi pero pude ver
give it to thee in preference. They cheated uSf and
doy preferencia enganaron
robbed them. I am going to send it to him that
robaron * voy mandar [para que]
he [may forward] it to her. It is to thtm that I
remita es [d quienes]
spoke. It is better to give it to her than to him. They
hable mejor dar
[would send] it to us rather thai return it to him. Do
enviarian dntes volver •
they speak of me or of him ? What does he say about
hablan 6 qn6 * dice de
it ? He says (2) nothing (1) of himself. Was it done
dice nada fu6 hecho
LECT. XrvJ] PERSON-AL PRONOTJTTS. 105
by him or by her ? He is gone with them. He did it
ha ido con hizo
for me. I can go without him. They spoke
para puedo ir sin hablaron
against me. [He would neither stay] with me, nor with
contra no quiso quedarse ni
thee. He carried it along with him. I sang with her,
Uevo ♦ cante
but not with him.
mas no
OBSEEVATIOK OlX TfiE SECOND PERSONAti PttONOTJir.
22. The second personal pronoun is only employed in
Spanish in addressing those persons with whom we are
on terms of great intimacy ; also by parents to their
children, but not by children to their parents ; by uncles
and aunts to their nephews and nieces ; between brothers
sisters, and cousins; sometimes by masters to their
servants : it is also used in scripture and in poetry. In
novels and romances we frequently see the second per-
sonal pronoun plural used in Spanish in addressing
persons for whom a high respect is entertained.
But in polite conversation, or in addressing strangers,
instead of the second personal pronoun, listed is used
with both genders in the singular number, and Ustedes in
the plural. Usted is an abbreviation of Vuestra Merced,
a term nearly equivalent in meaning to your grace, or
your honour. In writing, Usted is thus contracted, Vmd.
Some write it thus, Vm. ; others Vd. or V. An s is
added to either mode of abbreviation to form the plural
number ; and observe that the verb and the possessive
pronoun are put in the third person singular to agree
with Vmd., and in the third person plural to agree with
Vmds.: Ex.
I Le ha visto Vmd., Senor ? Have you seen him. Sir ?
Este es su reloj de Vm,d,, This is ^owr watch. Madam.
Seiiora.
Como estan Vmds., Senores? How do you do, Gentlemen?
Donde estan sus libros de Where are your books,
Vmds.f Senoritas ? young ladies ?
106 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. [lECT. XV.
Observe also that the adjective which refers to Vmd.
or Vmds. agrees in gender and number with the person
or persons to whom these abbreviations allude : Ex.
I Esta Vmd. hueno, Cabal- Are you well, Sir ?
lero?
I Estan Ymds. cansadas, Are you tired, Ladies ?
SeTioras ?
In speaking of an individual, instead of a pronoun in
the third person, su merced is sometimes employed in the
singular, and sus mercedes in the plural ; but this usage is
now mostly confined to persons in a lower station when
speaking of others in a higher ; as, Don Vicente me did
esta carta para Vmd., y me encargo su merced que la
entregase en manos propms — Don Vincent gave me this
letter for you, and his honour desired me to deliver it
into your own hands. Cuando di el recado d las Senoras,
me dijeron sus mercedes que, etc. — When I delivered the
message to the Ladies, their Ladyships told me, etc.
LECTURE XV.
POSSESSIVE PEONOUNS.
1. Possessive pronouns are those that denote the pos-
session of anything by the person or things to which
they refer : they do not vary their form in Spanish on
account of case ; but they admit the same preposition?
in the several cases as personal pronouns do. They are
of two kinds — namely, conjunctive, or those that precede
the noun, and disjunctive, or those that follow the noun,
or that refer to some noun understood.
CONJUNCTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
Mi,
my.
nuestro,
our.
tu,
thy.
vuestrOf
your.
*tt,
his, her, its.
su,
their.
XECT. XV.] POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 107
2. These refer to things possessed in the singular
numl 3r ; an s is added to them to form the plural : wm',
tu, su are applicable to both genders ; but nuestro and
vuestro are of the masculine gender, and change their final
letter into a to form the feminine : Ex,
Mi sombrero, mis espadas. My hat, my swords.
Tu carta, tus Jibros. Thy letter, thy books.
Su valor, sus virtudes. His, he?', or its, valour, or
virtues.
Nuestro deber, nuestras Our duty, our laws.
leyes.
Vuestro juicio, vuestros Fowr judgment, your deeds.
hechos.
Su talento, sus esperanzas. Their talent, their hopes.
In these examples we see that in Spanish these pos-
sessive pronouns agree in person with the possessory
and in number with the thing possessed ; and that the
first and second persons plural agree also in gender with
the thins
Mio,
mine.
nuestro,
tuyo,
thine.
vuestro,
suyoj
his, hers, its.
suyo,
DISJtTNCTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
ours.
yours,
theirs.
3. This class of possessive pronouns are made to agree
in person with the possessor, and in gender and number
with the thing possessed. They change the final letter
into a to form the feminine gender, and an s is added
to them to form the plural number : Ex,
El cuidado mio. My care.
Las esperanzas mias. My hopes.
El candor suyo. His, her, or their candour.
Los esfuerzos nuestros. Our efi'orts.
La carta vuestra. Your letter,
4. When these pronouns are employed in reference to
a noun understood, or one going before, they are preceded
by the definite article, agreeing with them in gender and
number ; except when used in answer to a q^uestion, and
108 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. [lEOT. XV.
likewise when a verb intervenes between the noun and
the pronoun ; in which cases the article is not necessary,
unless we wish to identify or to particularise the thing
to which the pronoun refers : Ex.
Mi libro y el tuyo estan My book and <^me are here,
aqui, pero el suyo no esta. but his, hers, or theirs is
not.
De quien es este libro? Mio. Whosebookisthis ?— 3/me.
Cual quiere Vmd., el nues- Which will you have, ours,
tro 6 el suyo f — El nues- or his ? — Ours.
tro.
Esa casa era nuestra. That house was ours,
Este sello es el mio. This seal is mine.
5. When disjunctive possessive pronouns refer in a
vague mannerto something possessed, they are sometimes
used with the neuter article, in the same manner as adjec-
tives substantively employed are ; as, Lo mio, Mine, or
that which is mine ; lo suyo, his, hers, its, or theirs ; or that
which is his, hers, etc. ; lo nuestrOf ours, or what is ours.
6. Disjunctive possessive pronouns, preceded in Eng-
lish by the preposition of, require no preposition in
Spanish : Ex.
Un vestido mio. A dress of mine.
Dos criados svyos. Two servants of his.
La carta vuestra de la que The letter of yours of which
hablo. I speak.
But when we wish to lay a particular emphasis on
the pronoun, then both the preposition and article are
required in Spanish : Ex.
Dos criados c?e los suyos, j Two servants o/Azs and one
uno de los mios. of mine.
Two of my servants, one of his friends, would be ren-
dered, I)os de mis criados, uno de sus amigos.
7. The pronoun my, used in English in addresses, is
translated mio, and follows the noun : Ex.
No vayas, hijo mio. Do not go, my son.
Creame Ymd., Seiior mio. Believe me, my dear Sir.
Acuerdate, hija mia! Remember, my child!
8. As in the employment of possessive pronouns of the
I
LECT. XV.] POSSESSIYE PEAWOUTTS. 109
third person, ambiguity may sometimes arise respecting
the gender and number of the possessor, it would be pre-
ferable in doubtful cases to employ a. personal pronoun in
the genitive case after the noun allusive to the possessor,
in addition to the possessive pronoun, or in addition to
the definite article before the noun, by which means every
ambiguity will be avoided : Ex.
Su casa de e7, or la casa His house.
de el.
Su casa de ella, or la casa Her house.
de ella.
Mis libros y los de Vmd. My books and yours.
jLoslibros de ellajloa mios. Her books and mine.
SuSy or las cartas de Vmd. Your letters and mine.
y las mias.
9. In alluding to any part or member of a person or
thing affected by a verb or a preposition, or to anything
worn by, or appertaining to a person or thing, instead of
the possessive pronoun employed in English, a personal
pronoun in the dative case is used in Spanish in reference
to the object itself, and the definite article points out the
particular part affected by the verb : Ex.
Le heri el brazo derecho. I wounded his right arm.
Me dio en la cabeza. He struck me on my head.
iVbs quitaron Zas espadas. They took away om?* swords.
Le cortaron la casaca. They tore his coat.
Me haaalborotado Zossesos. They have turned my brain.
In all these examples there appears a subject that
acts, and an object acted upon. When, however, there is
but one individual in question, or that the actor acts
upon anything belonging to himself, the definite article
alone is sufficient in Spanish, except when the verb is
used reflectively : Ex.
Ha perdido la vista. She has lost her sight.
Saco la espada. He drew out his sword.
Me duele la cabeza. My head aches.
Se lavo las manos. She washed her hands.
The possessive pronoun, however, should be retained
whenever the use of the article might occasion aaabiguity
110 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. [lECT. XV.
or obscurity, and also where identity or emphasis is de-
sired : Ex.
He aqui mi bolsa; t6mala. Here is my purse ; take it.
Saque yo vii espada luego I drew out wy sword assoon
que saco el la suya. as he drew out his.
10. The word own, used in English together with pos-
sessive pronouns, is translated propio, or viismo : Ex.
Hablaba de mis propios ne- I was speaking of my own
gocios. business.
Habla de si mismo. He speaks of his own self.
"EssiS csisa,s son suy as propios. Those are his own houses.
11. Sometimes the possessive pronoun is employed in
Spanish in a vague sense, and is then equivalent to one^s
in English : Ex.
Es precise obrar segun sw Itis necessary to act accord-
poder. ing to one's strength.
Conviene gastar segun sus It is prudent to spend ac-
medios. cording to one's means.
EXERCISE ON POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
My father and my mother are at home. My books are
estan en casa
well bound. Your houses are well built, and your
bien encuadernado edificado
gardens are adorned with beautiful flowers. Her servant
adornado de bello criado
took her horses to the stable. His genius and his talent
Uevo caballo cabaUeriza genio talento
are esteemed.Ourconstancy and our efforts[will surmount]
son estimado constancia esfuerzo venceran
every obstacle.Thy candour and thy virtue are well known,
todo obstdculo candor virtud son conocido
Soldiers ! your brave conduct has satisfied my hopes,
soldado bizarre conducta ha llenado esperanza
That is his own idea. My friends did not serve me
aqueUa es amigo • no obsequiaron
LEOT. XV.] POSSESSIVE PRONOUxVS. Ill
with tlie same zeal as his. All the pictures were sold,
mismo celo pintura se vendieron
except yours and mine. Your misfortune [cannot be
menos desgracia no puede
Compared] with ours. Their confidence deserves mine.
cotejarse confianza merece
"Whose gloves are these ? — ^Mine. And that hat ? — His.
cuyos guante son estos ese
Is this her coach ? — No, it is mine. A friend of mine
este coche
has spoken to a relation of his concerning some business
ha hablado pariente [acerca dej negocio
of yours. We sent a servant of ours to an aunt of
enviamos tia
hers. He has sold one of his horses. [What ails thee]
ha vendido que tienes
my child ? Here it is, my friend. Ours is to go first ;
esta ha de ir
yours [will go] next; and lastly, theirs. That
ira liltimamente aquella
house is hers; not his. Her letter is better written
carta esta escrito
than his. They hurt his leg in taking off his
lastimaron pierna * sacando
boot. Her teeth ache. I put the money into my
bpta muelas duelen meti en
pocket. I took off my hat. [It is better] for a man to
faltriquera quite * mas vale que *
lose his life than his honour. He is putting on his
pierda vida esta poniendose *
coat. She cut her finger. He lost his life in a duel.
casaca se corto dedo perdio desafio
112
DEMONSTEATIVE PRONOUNS. [lECT. XVI.
LECTURE XVI.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
1. Demonstrative pronouns are those that point to the
objects which they refer to, or which they stand in the
place of. In Spanish there are three kinds of demonstra-
tive pronouns : the first, este, refers to an object near to
the speaker ; the second, escy refers to an object nearer to
the person or thing spoken to than to the speaker ; and
the third, aquel, refers to an object that is distant both
from the speaker and from the object spoken to : Ex.
Estelihro que estoy leyendo, This book which I am read-
ing, that treatise which
you have in your hand,
and that pamplilet which
is on the table.
ese tratado que tiene Vmd.
en la mano, y aquel fo-
Ueto que eati sobre la
mesa.
2. Demonstrative pronouns in Spanish, are subject to
a variation of gender and number ; they are never pre-
ceded by the article, and do not vary their form on ac-
count of case, but admit the same prepositions to point
out their cases as personal pronouns do : Ex.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Sing. — Este . .
, . esta . .
. . esto . . . This.
ese . . ,
. . esa . .
. . eso . . . . that.
aquel . .
. . aquella
. aquello . . that yonder.
PlTTIL — Estos .
. . estas .
. no neuter, These.
esos . .
. . esas . . .
. no neuter, those.
aqnellos.
. . aquellas
. no neuter, those yonder.
In novels, etc., the first and second of these classes of
demonstratives are sometimes compounded with the adjec-
tiveofro, droppingtheir final vowel ; thus, Sing. — Estotro^
estotra, estotro, this other. Esotro, esotra, esotro, that
other. Plite. — Estotros, estotras, these others. Esotrot,
esotras, those others. The neuter has no plural.
This compounding of the two words does not take plaxje
with the third class, but they are written separately ; thus,
Sing. — Aquel otrOj aquella otra, aquello otro, that other
LECT. XVI.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 113
yonder. Plxtr. — Aquellos otros, aquellas otras, those
others yonder.
In poetry, aqueste, aquesta, aquesOy are sometimes used
instead of estey esu, eso — aquestos, aquestaa, for estos, estas
— aquese, aquesa^ aqueso, for ese, esa, eso — and aquesosy
aquesas, for esoSy esas.
3. The terms the former and the latter are translated
aquel and este : Ex.
Si sobresalio en las mate- If Leibnitz excelled in ma-
maticas Leibnitz, tam- thematics, so did Al-
bion sobresalio Alfonso ; phonsus ; the fairer in
aquel desde el sosiego de the tranquillity of his
su gabinete, este desde closet, the latter amidst
las turbulencias de las the tumult of campaigns,
campanas. (Vergel y
Ponce — Elogio de Don Alfonso el Sahio.)
4. When demonstrative pronouns refer to time, este is
applied to the present, and ese or aquel to the past, ao-
cording to the remoteness of the time alluded to : Ex.
Este es el siglo de la ilus- This is the age of know-
tracion. ledge.
Me acuerdo bien de ese dia. I recollect that day welL
Aquellos eran tiempos de Those were times of much
mucha barbaridad. barbarity.
5. Sometimes the demonstrative pronoun is used in
English to refer to some determined space of time ; as, I
have not seen him this month, these ten days, these two
years ; in such cases the impersonal verb hacer (it is) is
employed in Spanish instead. (See Impersonal Verbs,
Lect. 26) : Ex.
No han estado aqui hace un They have not heenheiethis
mes ; hace tres alios. month ; these three years.
Uace una hora; dos horas que I have been waiting here thit
estoy aguardando aqui. hour ; these two hours.
OBSERVATION ON ESE AND AQUEL.
6. Although what has been observed in Par. 1, with
regard to the application of the three kinds of demon-
114 DEMONSTEATIVE PR0N0T7NS. [lECT. XVI.
strative pronouns, is conformable with the rules given by
the Spanish Academy, yet there are instances in which
two objects pointed to at different distances from the
speaker, may have the same relative distance from the
person addressed, if he be near to the speaker ; in such
cases it would be more recommendable to employ ese or
aquelf according as the distance of the locality of the
objects, or their remoteness with regard to time, could be
more accurately denoted in English by an adverb : Ex.
Ese libro que esta sobre la That book there on the table,
mesa, y aquel que esta en and that one yonder on
el estante. the shelf.
Ese buque que llego ayer, y That vessel which arrived
aquel que naufrago el aiio yesterday, and that one
pasado. which was shipwrecked
last year.
7. The expressions namely , and that is, or that is to
say, are translated esto es: Ex.
Le encomend^ que no cami- I desired him not to walk
nase mucho ; esto es, que much ; that is, that he
solo hiciese un poco de should only take a little
ejercicio. exercise.
Me dijo que le comprara lo He told me to purchase him
-fiiguiente; estoes. the following; namely.
THE ARTICLE USED INSTEAD OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE AND
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
8. When in English the demonstrative pronoun is fol-
lowed by who, which, or that, expressed or understood, it
is sometimes rendered in Spanish by the definite article.
This, however, is not to be understood as a general rule,
as in this case the employment of the one in preference
to the other, is a mere matter of taste, although the
demonstrative pronoun appears to identify more parti-
cularly the object referred to : Ex.
Mis libros y los que (or My books and those which
aqueUos que) ^1 tiene. he has.
Los que (or aqueUos que) lo Those who say so are mis-
dicen se enganan. taken.
IJECT. XVI.] DEMONSTRATIVE PEONOUNS. 115
Traigame Ymd, el que (or Bring me that which you
aquel que) a Ymd. le think best,
parezca mejor.
9. Also when the 'English personal pronoun is followed
by who, or that, expressed or understood, it may be trans-
lated either by the article, or by the demonstrative pro-
noun aquel: Ex.
Delo Ymd. al que (or d Give it to him who should
aquel que) primero venga. first come.
M que es sabio (or aquel He that is wise would not
que es sabio) no lo diria. say so.
Los que (or aquellos que) lo They who heard it know it.
oyeron lo sab en.
EXERCISE ON" DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
They belong to this man and this girl, [Have you
pertenecen muchacha ha leido
read] these verses ? These pens do not write well.
Ymd. verso * no escriben bien
This garden is full of flowers. These apples are
estd Ueno manzana son
better than those. He is a relation of that gentleman
es pariente caballero
whom you (2) met (1) here [some days ago]. [Are
[a quien] encontro hace dias
you acquainted with] those ladies there ? That was a
conoce Ymd. a fue
brilliant age with the Athenians. He arrived on that
brillante siglo con Ateniense llego *
very day. What is that ? — and this ? Prefer virtue to
qu6 es prefiere virtud
vice; the former [will make] thee happy; the latter
vicio hara feliz
miserable. Two things appear to contribute to form
— • parece que concurren para formar
116 EELITIYE PRONOtmS. [lECT. XVH.
an orator — reason, and tlie heart ; the former to
orador razon corazon
convince, the latter to move and persuade. That is
convencer mover persuadir es
what he may do ; that is to say, what he ought to do.
puede hacer debe *
Those that cultivate learning should be encouraged.
cultivan ciencias deben ser protegido
Happy they who are virtuous. I prefer that which you
feliz que son virtuoso. prefiero que
have, to those which I bought. Those who speak ill
tiene compre hablan mal
of her do not know her. He that is wise speaks when
* conocen que sabio hablacuando
it is necessary; but he that only [presumes to be so]
necessario mas solo lo presume
speaks incessantly,
incesantamente
LECTURE XVII.
EELATIVE PRONOUNS.
1. Relative pronouns are those that relate to some
person or thing in a sentence, called the antecedent ; for
instance, The man who spolce : The bird which / caught ;
The ship that was lost. In these examples who, which ^
and that, are relative pronouns, and refer to the antecedent
nouns, man, bird, ship.
There are four relative pronouns in Spanish — namely,
qiiien, who ; cual, which ; que, who, which, or that ; and
cuyo, whose, or of which. Whom is rendered a quien ;
to, or for whom, etc. ; a, or para quien, etc. They do
not vary their terminations on account of case, but admit
the same prepositions as personal pronouns do in the
LEOT. XVn.] EELATTVE PRONOUNS. Il7
2. Quien and mal have a plural termination, as quienes,
cuales ; but they are common to both genders. Quien
refers to persons only, andcual both to persons and things.
Quien is seldom preceded by the article, but cualf as a
relative, generally is : Ex.
ifel es quien lo tiene. It is he who has it.
Jjassenorasque^oraqmenes, The ladies whom we saw.
or a las males vimos.
Los sehores con quienea The gentlemen to whom I
hable. spoke.
Es una ciencia de la oval It is a science of which I
tengo muy poco conoci- have but little knowledge.
miento.
JVote. — When the antecedent is understood, the rela-
tive occupies its place as the nominative of the verb ; as,
Quien lo dice se engana — ^Who says so is in error.
3. We sometimes see quien and cual used in the sense
of some and others, and one and another : Ex.
Quien se salvo a nado, quien Some saved themselves by
en lanchas. swimming, oi/iers in boats.
CwaHlevabalafatigadama- One bore away the wearied
dre, y cual el pequeno mother, a/ioi^er the infant
hijo. — (Cervantes — child.
Persiles y Sigismunda.)
4. Cudl^ in exclamatory sentences, means how, or in
what a state or condition; as, Cual le halle! — How
wretched, or in what a wretched state I found him !
5. Que is common to both numbers and genders, and
is applied to persons and things : Ex.
El homhre que vino. The man who (or that) cama
Las mugeres que acorn- The women whom {that or
paiiamos. which) we accompanied.
Las cosas k que Vmd. se The things to which you
refiere. allude.
6. The second and third examples might also be thus
expressed, Las mugeres a quienes acompanamos. Las
cosas a las cuales Vmd. se refiere. This construction is
used when we wish to identify an object more particularly.
In the like manner when who or that is repeated in a sen-
tence, it may be translated either que or el cual : Ex.
118 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. [lECT. XTII.
El hombre 5'Me partio ayer, The man who or that \eit
y que, or el cual fue asesi- yesterday, and that was
nado. murdered.
Observe, tbat when who or that has its antecedent ex-
pressed in English, it is seldom translated qiiien, but most
generally qve, especially if it agree in case with the ante-
cedent. It would therefore be unidiomatical to say. El
homhre quien vino ; Las mugeres quienes fueron : they
should be, El homhre que vino — The man who or that
came ; Las mugeres que Jueron — The women who or that
went. In the following example, who does not agree in
case with its antecedent, the latter being in the accusa-
tive ; tlierefore quien should be preferred to que : I'odos
aplaudieron d Emilia, quien se retiro llena de alegria —
They all applauded Emily, who retired full of joy.
7. If whom be repeated in a sentence, it may be either
translated quien or el cital preceded by a preposition : Ex.
El homhre a quien vimos, y The man whom we saw,
de quien, or del cual hui- and from whom we fled,
mos.
8. What is sometimes translated lo que, and which, lo
cual: (See Lect. 6, on the Neuter Article lo :) Ex.
Lo que el dice no es lo que What he says is not what
Vmd. piensa. you think.
Lo que digo es verdad, lo What I say is true, which
cual estas cartas lo prue- these letters prove,
ban.
9. Cuyo partakes of the nature both of a relative and a
possessive pronoun : as a relative it relates to an ante-
cedent, and as a possessive pronoun it refers to the person
or thing possessed ; in which latter capacity it agrees in
number and gender with the person or thing possessed,
and not with the possessor : Ex.
El homhre cuyo dinero The man whose money I
tengo. have.
Los autores cuyos libros leo. The authors whose books
I read.
El drbol ciiya fruta es ma- The tree of which the fruit
dura.
IS ripe.
Las mugeres cuyos desgra- The women whose misfor-
cias acabo de referir. tunes I have just related.
LECT. XVI.] RELATIVE PRONOTJTfS. 119
10. The expressions than whom, and than which are
rendered que, in the following manner : Ex.
Hablo de su hermano de I speak of your brother,
Vnid.,5Me anadieaprecio tan whom I estem noe
mas que a el. one better.
Estejardin, g-M^nadapuede This garden, than which
ser mas hermoso. nothing can be more
beautiful.
1 1 . Relatives are al ways expressed in Spanish, although
frequently omitted in English : Ex.
La casa que fuimos a ver, . The house we went to see.
La ciudad de que hablo. The city I speak of.
12. The relative in English does not invariably /oZZo?^;
the preposition by which it is governed ; as, for^'instance,
The gentleman whom / wrote to ; The houses ,which you
speak of. In Spanish, however, it must immediately
follow the preposition by which it is governed ; as, EL
caballero a quien escribi ; Las casus de que Vmd, habla.
EXERCISE ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
It is he who has sent us here. The gentlemen from
ha enviado
whom I have received so much kindness. The men whom
he recibido bondad
we met, and whom we questioned. Where is
encontramos preguntamos donde esta
the man of whom you speak ? The lady with whom you
habla
danced. The ladies to whom you sent the drawings,
bailo envio dibujo.
The man who wrote it. The house that you see there,
escribio ve
These are the works that you should read in preference
obra debia leer con preferencia
to those which you have selected. The general who
eligido
120 rNTERROGATIVE PEONOUXS. [lECT. XVm.
conducted the battle, and that [was killed] in it. A man
dirigio batalla murio en
that spends his life in idleness dies miserable. Give
pasa vida ociosidadmuere d^
it to whom you please. Cervantes, whose works we
guste
admire. It is an evil, the cause of which is unknown,
admiramos mal causa desconocida
The estate, the owner of which I am. They fought,
hacienda dueno soy peleaban
some with knives, others with swords; all was confusion
espada todo era
one [called for] assistance, another [sued for] mercy,
pedia socorro ♦ misericordia
Lope de Vega, whose ardent spirit knew (2) no (1)
ardiente espiritu conocia
bounds. Idleness is a vice we ought to shun. Th"
limite debemos evitar
men we saw this morning. The lad I [was speaking]
vimos mafiana joven hablaba
of. The idea you referred to
[se referia]
LECTURE XVIII.
INTEEEOGATI VE PRONOUNS.
1. Interrogative pronouns are so called from their
being employed in asking questions : they are relative
pronouns used interrogatively : Ex.
Qiiien esaquel sugeto? Who is that person ?
Cndi es de Ymd. ? Which is yours ?
Qtie es aquello ? What is that ?
Cuya es esta casa ? Whose house is this ?
LECT. XVin.] INTERROGATIYE PRONOUNS. 121
2. Cuyo, in interrogative sentences, is frequently sub-
stituted by de quie'n; therefore we may with equal
propriety say, De quien es esta casa f or, Ciiya es esta
casa ?
3. The same preposition employed in the interrogation
is required in the answer ; and it must be expressed in
Spanish, although sometimes omitted in English : Ex.
Con quien vino ? — Con migo. Whom did he come with ?
—Me.
En qu6 viajaban ? — En What did they travel in ?
coche, — In a coach.
Note. — Should the question be asked with ciiyo, the
preposition de is required with the answer, in the same
manner as if the question were put with de quien ; as,
Cuyo es este reloj ? — De mi padre. — Whose watch is
this ? — My father's.
EXERCISE ON INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
Who are those ladies ? Who is that gentleman ?
son
Whom [did you give it] to ? Which of those carriages
lo ha dado Vmd. carroza
[do you like best] ? Which are your works ? What
le gusta a Vmd. mas.
say you to that ? What [shall I take] with me ? Who is
dice llevare
he? What [shall we buy]? What [shall we do]?
compraremos har^mos
Whose is this seal? Whose jewels are those ? What
sello alhaja
hour is it ? [What did you do it for] ? — To save her.
hora para qu^ lo hizo Ymd. salvar
[What was it painted on] ? — On paper. Whom [did he go]
en que fue dibujado papel fu^
for ?— Me. [Whom do they fight against] ?— The Turks,
por contra qui^n pelean Turco
Whose was the decision ? — The judge's.
fu6 juez.
o
122
INDKJJ'LNITE PB0W0UN8. [lECT. XIX.
LECTURE XIX.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
1. These are so called because they are employed in
an indefinite manner with regard to the objects to which
they refer. The following is a list of words employed as
indefinite pronouns ; most of them, when used with
nouns, are more properly adjectives. They do not vary
their terminations on account of case, but admit the
same prepositions as all other pronouns do in the
eeveral cases : —
Alguno, dlguien,
some, somebody, anybody.
algo, alguna cosa,
something.
uno,
one, a person.
unos.
some, some persons.
uno i otro,
one another, each other.
uno u otro,
either, one or the other.
uno y otro,
one, and the other.
cada,
each, every.
cada uno, cada cual.
each, every one.
otro,
another, other.
dmbos,
both.
todo,
all, everything.
todos.
every one, everybody.
poco.
little.
pocos.
few.
unos pocos, ^
unos cuantos, )
a few.
mucho.
much.
muchos,
many.
varies,
several.
cualquiera.
whichsoever, any.
cualquiera cosa,
whatever.
quienquiera,
whosoever.
tal,
such.
fulano,
such a person.
LEOT. XIX.] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 12S
fulano y zutano, such and such a person.
cuanto, how much.
cuantos, how many.
ninguno, nadie, none, no one, nobody.
nada, nothing,
ni uno ni otro, neither,
2. These indefinites are subject to a variation of
number and gender, except dlguien^ algo, cada^ nadie ^
and nada, which are always used in the singular number,
and are common to both genders : tal, and its plural tales^
are common to both genders: dmbos, entrdmhos, and
varioSf are always employed in the plural number, and
are made to agree in gender with the nouns to which they
refer. Cualquiera forms its plural by cualesquiera, and
is common to both genders. Quienquiera is seldom used
in the plural number, which is quidnesquieraj but it is
common to both genders. Cualquiera^ cualquiera cosa,
and quienquieray require que after them, when followed
by a verb in the subjunctive. Alguien^ quienquiera^
fulano, zutanoy and nadie^ refer to persons only ; algo and
nada to things only, and all the rest to both. The
following are examples of the use of each of the indefinite
pronouns.
ALGT7N0, IlGUIEN.
Alguno estd aW. Somebody^ or tome one is
there.
Algunos lo dicen. Some say so.
I Lo ha visto dlguien, or Has any one, or anybody
alguno? seen it?
Necesito algun dinero y I want some money and
algunas letras de cambio. some bills of exchange.
Note 1. — When someone or any one is followed by of,
we must use alguno in the translation, and not dlguien;
as, Si alguno de ellos viniere — If any one of them should
come. Alguno de ellos lo opuso — Some one of them
opposed it.
jg^ote 2. — Any one or anybody^ not used interrogatively,
is translated cualquiera; as, Cualquiera lo creeria-^Any
one, or anybody would believe it.
124
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
[lect.
ALGO, ALGUNA COS A.
Tengo algo, or alguna cosa I have something to tell
que decirle. you.
^ Tiene algo para ml ? Has he anything for me ?
Si, algo tiene. Yes, he has something.
Note 1. — Anything, not used interrogatively, is trans-
lated cualquiera cosa; as, Cualquiera cosa que se ofrezca
— Anything that may offer.
Note 2. — When algo is employed as a noun, and fol-
lowed by an adjective, the latter is preceded by the
preposition de ; and if followed by an infinitive, qiie is
required instead of de ; as i Trae algo de bueno ? — Does
he bring anything good ? Hay algo que temer en eso —
There is something to fear in that. — See also nada.
UNO, ITNOS,
What can one (or a person)
do in such a case ?
Some say yes; some say no.
Give me a few almonds; a
few raisins.
Note. — One or ones, employed in English in place of
a noun after an adjective, is not translated into Spanish :
Ex. There is a dollar ; see if it is a good one — Alli estd
tin peso; vea Vmd. si es bueno. Have you any kid
gloves ? Yes, sir, very excellent ones —^Tiene Vmd,
guantes de ante? iSi, Senor^ muy excelentes.
Q\i€ puede hacer uno en tal
caso?
C7wos dicen que SI ; unosdi-
cen que no.
DemeVmd.unas almendras;
Unas pasas.
TJNO A OTRO, UNO l6 OTRO, UNO Y OTEO
Se aman utw a otrom
Que venga uno u otro.
Que uno y otro decidan.
Unos y otros han de siifrir.
They love one another, op
each other.
Let one or the other come.
Let one and the other decide.
The ones and the others must
suffer.
LECT. XIX.] rNDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 125
CADA, CADA UNO, CADA CUAL.
When each or every is immediately followed by a noun,
cada must be used in the translation : Ex.
Cada pais tiene sus costum- Every country has its cus-
bres. toms.
Di un duro por cada tomo. I gave a dollar for each
volume.
When each or every is not followed by a noun, it is
translated cada una, or cada cual : Ex.
Cada una mecostounalibra. Each cost me a pound.
Cada cual sabe lo que le Every one knows what trou-
duele. bles him.
OTEO, OTROS.
Deme Ymd. otro. Give me another.
Otros han hecho lo mismo. Others have done the same.
TengooZmscosasquehacer. I have other things to do.
Note. — Another^ s, and other people* Sf used in a vague
sense are sometimes translated ageno ; as, No codicies el
hien ageno — Do not covet another's wealth. Bebemos
respetar lo ageno — We must respect what belongs to
other people, or what is other people's.
Xmbos, or sometimes entrImbos.
Ambos se encapricharon de Both took a fancy to her.
ella.
Amhas murieron. They hoth died.
Los vi a entrdmbos. I saw them both.
Note. — Both, employed in English before two nouns,
pronouns, or adjectives, is not translated: Ex. She is
both rich and handsome — Ella es rica y hermosa. I
begged both him and her to remain. Mogue' a el y a ella
que se quedasen.
TODO, TODOS.
Todo tiene su fin. Everything has its end.
Todos lo saben. All know it, or everybody
knows it.
Toda la ciudad salio a reci- All the town went out to
birle. receive him.
126 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, [lECT. XIX,
POCO, POCOS.
Poco bastara. A little will suffice.
A pocos les pesa. Few regret it.
Tomar^ unos pocos, or unos, I will take &few.
cuantos.
Note. — £ut little, and hut few are translated pocuisimo,
and pocuisimos ; as, I have but little to do — Tengopocui-
simo que hacer. They have but few left — Les (jueda
pocuisimos.
MirCHO, MTJCHOS,
No me d6 Ymd. mucho. Do not give me much,
Muchos lo toleran. Many tolerate it.
Note. — A great many is translated muchisimos, and a
great deal, muchisimo ; as, I have a great many com-
plaints to make to you. — Tengo mucMsimas quejas que
hacerle. You have given me a great deal — Me ha dad*
Vmd. muchisimo,
VAEIOS.
Yarios se acordaron de ^1. Several remembered him.
Lo he visto varias veces. I have seen it several times*
CUALQUIERA, OUALESQTJIEIIA.
Cualquiera que Vmd. guste. Whichever, or whichsoever
you please.
Cualesquiera, or cualquiera Whatever persons should
personas que se atrevie- venture,
sen.
Cualquiera de ellos servir^. Hither, or an^ of them wiU
do.
CT7ALQTJIEEA COSA,
Cualquiera eosa que digan. Whatever they may say.
Cualesquiera cosas que com- Whatever things they may
pren. buy.
Cualquiera cosa le basta. Anything will do for him.
Note 1. — Whatever J meaning all what, or all that which,
is translated todo lo que ; as, Hare todo le qv^ Vmd. me
mande — I will do whatever you desire me.
LECT. XIX.] INDEFINITE PEONOUNS. 127
Note 2. — Some writers drop the final vowel of cual-
quiera before a noun masculine ; as, cualquier hombre ;
but the retention or omission of it is a mere matter of
taste.
QUIENQITIERA.
Quienqmera que sea. Whoever or whosoever he
may be.
De guienquiera que Vmd. Of whomsoever you may
hable. speak.
TAL, TAIiES.
Tal hombre ; tal muger. Sttch a man ; such a woman.
Tales cosas ; tales papeles. Such things ; such papers.
FUIiANO, FULANO Y ZUTANO.
Quien es el Senor fulano ? Who is Mr. Such-a-one f
Vmd. dijo que fulano y zu- You said thatsMcA andswcA-
tano ya la sabian. a-one already knew it.
CUANTO, OXTANTOS.
Cudnto quiere Vmd.? How much do you want?
No se cuantos, I don't know how many.
NINGUNO, NADIE.
Ninguna persona, ningunot No person^ nohodi/, or no
or nadie lo sabe. one knows it.
Ningunos esfuerzos suyos. No efforts of his.
No se lo de Vmd. a nadiey Do not give it to anyhody.
or a ninguno,
Nadie, or ninguno volvi6. None, or no one returned.
Not£ 1 . — Ninguno relates to persons and things ; but
nadie to persons only.
Note 2. — When none or no one is followed by o/, we
must employ ninguno in the translation, and not nadie ;
as, Ninguno de esos soldados — None of those soldiers. Nin-
guno de los que Vmd. conoce — No one of those you know.
128 INDEFINITE PE0K0UX8. [lECT. XIX,
NAD A.
No trajo nada^ or nada trajo He did not bring miy thing ^
consigo. or he brought nothing
with him.
No vale nada. It is worth nothing.
Note. — When nada is employed as a noun and
followed by an adjective, the latter is preceded by the
preposition de ; and if followed by an infinitive, que is
required instead of de (as we have seen is the case with
ALGo) ; as, No traen nada de nuevo — They bring nothing
new. No falta nada que hacer — There is nothing want-
ing to be done.
NX UNO NI OTRO.
Niunoni o^ro me gusta. I do not like either; or I
like neither.
Ni unos ni otroa me acomo- Neither the ones nor the
dan. others suit me.
Ni las Unas ni las otraa sa- Neither do the ones nor the
ben lo que hacen. others know what they
are about.
EXERCISE ON INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Let some one follow him. I am waiting for somebody,
que siga estoy esperando d
Some [will go] to-day, and some to-morrow. If anybody
iran si
should consent. Can any one [be ignorant of it] ?
* consintiese puede ignorarlo
Have (1) you (3) bought (2) anything for me? One
ha Vmd. comprado para
[is not certain] of living till to-morrow. Some will,
no esta cierto vivir hasta quieren
some will (2) not (1). Take a few walnuts. They com-
no tome nuez co-
municate their ideas to one another. One or the other
munican
must go. Both listened. We revised each paragraph,
debe ir escuoharon revisdmos parrafo.
LECT. XIX.] INDEflNITE PE0N0UN3. 129
Each came with her own complaint. Another (person)
venia con * queja
would have acted differently. Other people do
hubiera obrado diferentemente hacen
the same. All was sold. Every one applauded him.
mismo se vendi6 aplaudieron
Give me a little. Few are happy. I eat a few of those
de son comi
raisins. We do not require much to be happy,
pasa no necesitamos para ser
Many disappeared. Many [have been exalted] many
desaparecieron se han alzado
times with the name of great, by the false opinions of
vez con nombre por false
the vulgar. [There were] several of his opinion. Give
vulgo habia parecer
me whichever you please. Either of them [will do],
guste servira
Whatever situation he may hold. Whatever [might hap-
colocacion que tenga suceda
pen]. Whoever he [may be]. I never saw such a thing,
sea jamas vi
Such actions are unworthy of him. Such-a-one knew
son indigno supo
it. Such and such-a-one witnessed it. How much
presenciaron
[shall I bring] ? How many would rejoice at it !
traere se alegrarian de
[There is not] any of them there. No promises could
no hay alli promesa pudieron
tempt him. No one knows him. Nothing should hinder
tentar conoce debia impedir
us from doing our duty. Neither has finished his task,
hacer deber ha concluido tarea
Neither of these comedies has much merit,
comedia tiene merito
Q 5
130 VEBB9. [liECT. ZZ.
LECTUEE XX.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF VERBS.
1 . There are four kind of verbs to be considered —
namely, auociUar^j active, passive, and neuter.
2. The auxiliary verbs in Spanish are kdber, to have,
and ser and estar, to be. They are called auxiliary from
their peculiar office m assisting to form the compound
tenses of all other verbs in general.
3. A verb is called active when its action passes from
one person or thing to another; for-which reason it is also
called transitive ; thus, to strike, to hate, to write, to see,
etc., are ac^iVe verbs,because the action described by them
may pass over to a person or thing acted upon, called the
object of the verb : for instance, William struck Henry ;
They hate vice ; in which examples the noun William,
and the pronoun they, are the agents or nominatives of
the verbs to strike and to hate, respectively; and the nouns
Henry and vice, being the person and thing acted upon,
or affected by the verbs, are the objects of these verbs.
4. Active verbs become reflective when their agent and
object are but one person or thing ; that is, when the
agent acts upon himself. In the examples, / see myself;
He loves himself; it is observed that the action described
by each verb does not affect any other object besides its
agent. When there is a reciprocity of action between
two or more persons or things, the verb denoting the
action is called a reciprocal verb : for instance, We see
each other ; They love one another.
5. A verb is called passive when it describes the state
of a person or thing suffering from, or enduring an action
done by another person or thing. All active verbs, and a
few neuter verbs, become passive when employed with
the auxiliary to be ; thus, Henry was beaten by William ;
Vice is abhorred by the virtuous. Here we see that the
verbs to be beaten and to be abhorred express a suffering,
or a passiveness, on which account they are called passive
verbs. In the first example, although Henri/ is the
I
LECT. XX.] VERBS. 131
sufferer, he is not the accusative case of the verb to he
beaten ; because, wherever there is the verb to he, it can
have reference only to a nominative case, and Henry is
described to be in a state of suffering from an action.
William is not the nominative of the verb, because he is
governed by the preposition hy, which denotes instru-
mentality ; William is therefore in the ablative case. The
same observations apply to the second example.
6. A neuter verb is neither active nor passive. By a
neuter verb something is represented as existing or being,
denoting only the state of the agent of the verb ; the
action of the verb does not pass over to any other person
or thing ; for which reason neuter verbs have also been
called intransitive. To live, to sit, to sleep, to stand, are
neuter verbs, because they merely denote the various
states of being of their agents : for the same reason to he,
besides being an auxiliary, is likewise a neuter verb.
To distinguish a neuter from an active verb, we have
only to put a noun after it, and if it makes sense with
the noun, it is active ; if it does not, it is neuter.
Although neuter verbs are not called active, still there
are some that denote a visible action, such as, to go, to
come, to run, and many others ; but the actions denoted
by them are not transitive, since they remain with their
agents ; as, the man walks, the horse runs, the boy swims,
etc. Verbs of this kind are called active intransitive.
7. There are some verbs which, according to the
manner they are employed, are sometimes active, and
at others neuter ; thus, to run is active, when we say. To
run a race, because the action of the verb passes on to
the object race ; but it is neuter in, He runs fast, because
the action of the verb remains with its agent He, and
admits of no objective case after it.
8. Verbs are again subdivided into regular, irregular,
impersonal, and defective.
9. Regular verbs are all those that are conjugated
throughout every mood and tense according to certain
models which are considered standards for all regular
verbs. In the conjugations of regular verbs in this
grammar (Legt. 24), hablar, to speak ; temer, to fear; and
sufrir, to suffer, are given as models for conjugating all
the regular verbs in the Spanish language.
132 VERBS. [lect. XX.
10. IrreQvJar verbs are those that deviate in some
instances from the general standard. In Lect. 25 are
given lists of aTl the irregular verbs in the Spanish lan-
guage, exhibiting the irregularities of each.
11. Impersonal wevhs BXQ thosQ that are employed in
the third person only of every tense ; thus, to rain, to
thunder, to dawn, and many others, are impersonal verbs.
They are so called because in their employment there
appears no apparent person or thing acting as their
agent; for when we say it rains, it thunders, etc., we do
not express tvho or what it is that rains or thunders. See
the Conjugation of Impersonal Verbs, Lect. 26.
12. Defective verbs are such as are only used in cer-
tain tenses, and with certain persons, because their
peculiar meaning does not admit them to be employed
with every tense and person. See the Conjugations of
Defective Verbs, Lect. 26.
13. "We have now foyr more things connected with
verbs to be considered — namely, the conjugationSf the
moods f the tenses, and the person and number.
the conjugations.
14. The conjugation of a verb is the exhibiting under
one view all the various changes which it undergoes in
the several moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. These
variations are much more numerous in verbs in the
Spanish and other foreign languages than they are in
English verbs, and therefore become a matter of moment
to attend to.
the moods.
15. Mood, or mode, which signifies mnntierf expresses
the intention of the mind concerning the manner in which
we use the verb. There are four moods — namely, the
ivfinitive, the indicative, the subjunctive, and the impera-
tive.
16. The infinitive, which is the root of the verb, repre-
sents the action, or the state of being, in a general and
unlimited manner, without any reference to time, nimi-
ber or person ; thus, the verbs hablar, temer, and sufrir, to
speak, to fear, and to sufi'er, in the manner here expressed,
LECT. XX.] VEEBS. 133
do not denote when, nor in what manner, the actions
represented by them take place, nor who act as their
agents ; to determine all which, a verb in the infinitive
mood must have an antecedent verb, or, as it is sometimes
called, a governing verb ; as, Voy a hablar — I am going
to speak. No pude venir — I could not come. Nos haran
svfrir — They will make us suffer. In these examples it
is also seen that the infinitive in both languages is some-
times preceded by a preposition, and sometimes not: this
is a subject that will be treated on in the Government of
Yerbs, Lect. 28.
17. The Spanish infinitive frequently partakes of the
nature of a noun, and becomes a nominative or an objec-
tive case. The greater part of infinitives may be thus
employed by prefixing the definite article to them : Ex.
Ei mucho estvdiar d voces Too much study sometimes
prejudica k la salud. injures the health.
Al falir de casa encontr^ a On going out of the house
mi amigo. I met my friend.
Sometimes, chiefly at the beginning of a sentence, the
infinitive is employed as a subordinate verb, and is
equivalent to a verb in the subjunctive mood preceded
by the conjunction si, if: Ex.
A saber yo que hubiera If I had known that he
venido, no habria salido. would have come, I would
not have gone out.
"Which is equivalent to si yo hubiera sabido que, etc.
18. The indicative mood is so called because it simply
indicates or points out the action or state of being in a
positive and unconditional manner, depending on no
other verb to determine its signification : Ex.
Yo confio ; vosotros pro- I trust ; you proceed ; they
cedeis ; ellos prohiben. prohibit.
19. It does not always occur that the same mood and
tense are employed in both languages ; it frequently
happens that when one particular mood or tense is em-
ployed in English, a different one is required in Spanish ;
this matter will be fully explained in Lect. 28.
20. The subjunctive mood makes no complete sense
of itself, as the indicative does ; but it represents the
134 VEEBS. [lECT. XX.
action, or state of being, under some doubt, condition, or
uncertainty, being dependent for its signification on, or
subordinate to some other verb (expressed or under-
stood), to which it is subjoined by means of a conjunction.
A verb in the subjunctive mood, therefore, depends on
some circumstance denoted by the antecedent verb to
render its signification complete : Ex.
Leeria si tuviera tiempo. I would read if I had time.
Temo que rinan. I fear that they may quatrel.
Beseaba que huhiese triun- I wished that he hxid
fado. triumphed.
Lo har^ con tal que con- I will do it provided he
8ienta» consent,
21. The conjunction qtie (that), which governs the
verb in the subjunctive mood, may, by way of ellipsis, be
suppressed in both languages, but less often in Spanish
than in English ; as, Ojald (que) haga huen tiempo
manana — I hope {that) it may be fine to-morrow.
Deseaba (que) volviese Vmd. pronto — I wished {that) you
might soon return.
22. It is not every conjunction that governs the sub-
junctive mood ; for instance, some govern the infinitive,
which are those that are followed by the preposition de;
such as, a Jin de, in order to ; por miedo de, for fear
of, etc. The following may govern the indicative when
they do not express doubt or uncertainty — namely, como.
as ; porque, because ; pues que, since ; mientras, whilst ;
aunque, though, etc. But all those govern the subjunc-
tive that denote doubt, wish, supposition, or uncertainty ;
as, amenos que, unless; a fin que, in order that; bienque,
aunque, although ; sea que, whether ; no obstante que,
notwithstanding ; sz, if, whether ; en caso que, in case
that ; antes que, before ; hasta que, until ; cuando, when ;
cuando quiera que, whenever ; d condicion que, on con-
dition that, providing ; para que, in order that ; sin que,
without, unless ; por miedo que, for fear that; dado que,
granted; supuesto que, provided, etc. The following
examples will show how the same conjunction governs
the verb, sometimes in the indicative, and sometimes
in the subjunctive, according to the sense in which it is
used:
LECT. XX.] VERBS. 135
Aunque le conozco no le Although I "know him, I do
hablo. not speak to him.
No le hablaria aunque le I would not speak to him,
conocicra, though I knew him.
Creo que viene cada dia. I believe that he comes every
day.
Creo que venga esta noche. I think that he may come
to-night.
Si engana, no es mi culpa. If he deceives, it is not my
fault.
Si le enganarcj Ymd. tendrd If he should deceive you, it
la culpa. will be your fault.
By these examples it will be seen that when we speak
positively, the indicative is employed ; but whenever there
exists the least indication of doubt in our expressions, the
subjunctive must be used.
23. In the natural construction of language that
member of the sentence containing the antecedent verb
precedes the one with the subordinate verb, but they may
exchange situations for the sake of variety or energy; as.
Con tal que Vmd. consienta, lo hare' — Provided you con-
sent, I will do it. For the manner of employing the
subjunctive mood, see Lect. 21, Par. 22 to 28; and
Lect. 28, Par. 8, from Observation 5th to 9th.
24. The imperative mood is used for commanding, or
for entreatiug : Ex.
Acuerdate de tu deber. Remember thy duty.
JElija Ymd. el que guste. Choose which you like.
Suplico a Ymd. me lo ex- I beseech you to explain it
plique. to me.
When the imperative is employed in English in a
negative sense, the present tense of the subjunctive mood
preceded by a negative particle, is used in Spanish
instead: Ex.
No le compadezcas. Do not (thou) pity him.
No me ofendais. Do not (you) offend me.
Jamas lisonjees a nadie. Never do (thou) flatter
any one.
This deviation is only striking in the second person
singular and plural, since in the other persons the verb is
136 VERBS, [lect. XX-
epelled alike in the imperative and tlie present of the
eubjimctive; as, exija, that he may exact, or, let him
exact ; tmploremos, that we may implore, or, let ua
implore; cometan, that they may commit, or, let them
commit.
THE TENSES.
25. Tense signifies time, and as all actions and states
of existence must necessarily be limited to time, they are
said to be either in the present, the past, or the future tense.
These are the three grand divisions of time. The present
tense denotes that the action or the state of being repre-
sented by the verb is taking place, or existing at the time
of expressing it ; as, / write, you explain, he sleeps. In
the past tense the action or state of being is represented
as having taken place, or to have already commenced ;
as, / wrote, you explained, he slept. And in the future
tense the action or state of being is represented as a
circumstance to take place at a time which is yet to
come ; as, / shall write, you will explain, they will sUep.
26. Each of these three grand divisions of time has,
by philologers, been subdivided, in order to denote the
time of being, or of action, with greater minuteness and
precision. These subdivisions of time are what are
called the compound tenses. They are so called because,
to express them, more than one word is required in the
English and Spanish languages ; for instance, / have
written, is the compound of the present tense of the verb
to write; you had explained, is the compound of the past
tense of the verb to explain ; and he will have slept, is
the compound of the future tense of the verb to sleep.
We here see that each of these tenses is formed by com-
pounding the auxiliary to have, with the past participls
of the verb denoting the action or the state of being*
Latin verbs admit of such great variety of inflections,
that each of their tenses is formed by a single word, and
to each is given a difi'erent name. Many of the writers
of modern grammars have adopted Latin names in a
variety of forms to designate the several tenses by ; but
the foregoing disposition of them has been considered
more simple and comprehensive. The following are the
names of tenses of Latin origin that are most generally
lECT. XXI.] EMPLOTMEIH' OP THE TENSES. 137
adopted : — Present ^ I write. Preterimperfect^ or perfect
indefinite, I wrote. Preterperfect, or perfect definite, I
have written. Preterplupeifect, I had written. Future
imperfect, I shall write. Future perfect, I shall have
written.
PERSON AND NUMBER.
27. Every verb has at least one noun or pronoun for
its agent or nominative. Sometimes, however, the nomi-
native may not be expressed, but then it is always under-
stood, and this suppression of the nominative occurs with
much more frequency in Spanish than in English, espe-
cially as regards pronouns, as we have seen in Lect. 14,
Par. 12.
28. There are three persons and two numbers. Tread,
thou singest, the man walks, are the first, second, and third
persons singular number; and we read, you sing, and the
men walk, are the first, second, and third persons plural
number.
LECTURE XXL
USE AND EMPLOYMENT OF THE TENSES.
PRESENT TENSE OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
1. This tense expresses the existing state of things;
what is being done, or taking place at the present time ;
and what exists permanently. All present customs,
habits, and professions of individuals and nations, are
also expressed by this tense : Ex.
El gobierno de los Estados The government of the
IJnidos es democratico. United States is demo-
cratic.
Yo escribo y ella dihuja. I write and she draws.
La luna acompana k la The moon accompanies the
tierra. earth.
Los Europ^os cultivan las The Europeans CM/iivaie the
sciencias. sciences.
Ella se levanta tarde. She rises late.
El es coronel. He is a colonel.
138 VERBS. [lECT. XXI.
2. TMs tense is sometimes formed in both languages
with the verb estar, to be, and the present participle of
the verb denoting the action, and, in a more forcible
manner, describes it as occurring at the time ol express-
ing it : Ex.
Estoy escribiendo, I am writing.
Estan leyendo. They are reading.
The same construction is likewise made use of to
describe any action in a present progressive state,
though, perhaps, not actually in operation at the precise
moment of naming it : Ex.
Mi amigo estd viajando. My friend is travelling.
Estoy componiendo una obra. / am getting up a work.
3. In English there are three ways of forming the
present tense ; for instance, / think, I am thinking , I do
think ; the first and second forms are likewise used in
Spanish, as we have just seen; but the third, with the
auxiliary do, the employment of which adds greater
energy to the affirmative, does not admit of a literal
translation into Spanish ; instead of which, the verb is
sometimes modified by an adverb : Ex.
Canta muy bien, deveras. She does sing very well.
JSi, lo creo. I do believe it
4. When the auxiliary do is employed in English as a
substitute for the verb which it represents, if the verb
and auxiliary are in the same number and person, the
affirmative particle st\ or the negative no, is used instead
in Spanish ; but if the English verb and auxiliary are
in different persons and niimbers, the verb in Spanish is
repeated, each verb agreeing in number and person with
its own agent : Ex.
"El no se queja, pero ella st. He does not complain, but
she does.
Ella ne^esiVa dinero, pero el She wants money, but he
no. does not.
Vmd no le conoce, pero You do not know him, but
nosotros le conocemos. we do.
Yo le perdono, y eUos tarn- I pardon him, and so do
bien le perdonan. they.
liECT. XXI.] EMPLOYMENT OP THE TENSES. 139
The like is observed with can, shall, will, and all other
verbs employed in English as auxiliaries. — See Pae. 18
and 30 of this Lecturb.
Observe, that when to do is employed as a principal
verb, and not as an auxiliary, it is translated by the verb
hacer ; as, Har6 lo que Vmd. me manda hacer — I will do
what you desire me to do.
For the auxiliary do, employed as the sign of negative
and interrogative sentences, seeLECT. 24, Par. 8 and 9.
5. There is what is called the historical present tense.
by which historians, in order to give more animation to
their descriptions, represent past events in the present
form of the verb ; as, Apenas dada la orden, se avanza
la cahalleria, ataca al enemigo, que presto queda comple-
tamente derrotado — The order was scarcely given, when
the cavalry advances^ attacks the enemy, who soon remains
completely routed.
6. The present tense is sometimes used to express a
future movement, to the performance of which the mind
has already been made up ; as, Nosotros wos vamos mananay
y ellos salen el dia despues — ^We go to-morrow, and they
leave the following day.
PAST TENSE OP THE INDICATIVE MOOD,
7. This tense in Spanish is divided into the past im-
perfect and the past perfect, and as in English, both are
frequently expressed by the same inflection of the verb,
learners of the Spanish language are often at a loss to
know which of the two forms of the verb to employ, since,
in translating from English, they must, in most cases, be
guided by the meaning of the sentence, in order to deter-
mine whether the verb be in the past imperfect or the
past perfect tense.
Those who are acquainted with the Latin, Italian, op
French language will immediately perceive the distinction
between these two tenses, since their employment in
Spanish is almost precisely the same as in those three
languages, as will be seen by the following exposition.
140
VERBS.
[lECT. XXI.
English . . I went to the theatre very fre-
quently.
Past
' Spanish .
. Iha muy amenudo al teatro.
Imperf.
1 Italian .
FllEXCH .
. Andava spessissimo al teatro.
. J^allois tres souvent au theatre.
V Latin . .
. Theatrum seDpissime adiham.
[ English .
. 1 went to the theatre last night.
Past
J Spanish .
. Fm al teatro anoche.
Perject.
< Italian .
. ^7ic?aijersera al teatro.
/ Fkench .
. J^allai au th^ritre hier au soir.
I Latin . .
. Superior! nocte theatrum adivi.
' English .
. The Eomans were great war-
riors.
Past
Spanish .
. Los Romanos eran grandes guer-
reros.
Imperf.
Itall/^ .
Fkench .
. I Romani erano grandi guerrieri,
. Les Remains etaient de grands
.Latin . .
guerriers.
. Romani bello fortes erant.
' English .
Spanish .
. The Romans conquered Britain.
. Los Romanos conquistaron a la
Bretana.
Past
Italian ,
. I Romani conquistarono la Bri-
Perfect. '
French .
tannia.
. Les Romains conquirent la Bre-
. Latin . .
tagne.
. Romani Britanniam domuerunt.
8. The principal and most general characteristics of
these two tenses are, that the past imperfect denotes, first,
the action of existence to he in a continuative or progres-
sive state ; or, secondly, that it has some connexion with
t\iQ present time ; or, thirdly, its occurring at a time whilst
another action was taking place, and therefore co-existing
with it ; whereas the past perfect tense denotes the action
or state of being to have completely or perfectly passed, at
t!ome particular or defined period, having no connexion
with the present time ; for which reason it is sometimes
called the past definite tense, as the imperfect is sometimes
called the past indefinite. For instance, if I say, James
loved Elkfiy Jay hearer 'i» ia doubt whether that lov© ood-
LECT. XXI.] EMPLOYMENT OP THE TENSES. 141
tinues to exist, or has ceased, or whether it existed at a
period when another circumstance, havingreference to the
time of its existence, was taking place. This doubt will
be removed by continuing the sentence ; as James loved
Ellen, and still loves her. Now we see that the act of
loving is described to be in a continuative or progressive
state, and it is also connected with the present time ; the
verb is therefore in the past imperfect tense. In the follow-
ing example, James loved Ellen long before he married her,
although the act of loving may have no reference to the
present time, nevertheless it is represented to be in a con-
tinuative state ; therefore loved is here likewise in the past
imperfect tense. Again, in James loved Ellen when he
married her, the act of loving is represented to have ex-
isted at the time that the marriage took place ; that is, it
expresses an action present with respect to a time past;
therefore that action is also in the past imperfect tense.
But in the sentence, / wrote to John last Monday, the act
of writing is represented as having taken place at a parti-
cular or definite period, which is entirely gone hy ; it is not
in a progressive state, nor has it any reference to another
action ; it is therefore in the past perfect tense.
9. It is of essential importance to the student to know
how to distinguish these two tenses at once ; and, there-
fore, for the better illustration of them, some examples
are here given in both languages: for instance, Past
Imperfect — Iba a la libreria. Past Perfect — Fin d
la libreria. Both these examples are translated, / went to
the library ; but the meaning of the first is, / used to go ;
or, / was in the habit of going ; or, was accustomed to go
to the library ; as, Cuando estaba en Madrid iba todos loe
dias a la libreria — When I was in Madrid I went, or, I
used to go to the library every day. In which the act of
going is described as a reiterated action, or one that the
actor was accustomed to do, or in the habit of doing ; but
in the second instance the verb alludes to some particular
or stated period ; as, Fui a la libreria ayer — I went to the
library yesterday. And here we see that the particular
period in which the act of going took place, is referred
to ; it is perfectly passed at a definite period, and has no
connection with the present time.
10. With the past imperfect tense are also described
142
TERES.
[lect. XXJ,
all former customs, habits, professions, etc., of individuals
and nations no longer existing, as well as those which be-
longed formerly to persons still existing : Ex.
Los Israelitas hacian sacri- The Israelites made sacri-
fices to God : i.e. were in
the habit of making.
The Egyptians cultivated
the sciences.
Cicero was a great orator.
I used to travel much when
I was younger.
ficios a Dies.
liOS Egipcios cultivahan las
sciencias.
Ciceron era grande orador.
Yo viajaha mucho cuando
era mas joven.
11. The past perfect tense describes a former, but not
a progressive act, or state of being. It represents the oc-
currence as entirely passed at some particular period, as
before stated. To authorise the use of this tense, the
time in which the circumstance represented by it occurred
must have no relation whatever with the present period ;
that is, it cannot be employed in reference to anything
that has taken place in the century, year, month, week,
or day, of which the period in which we are speaking
forms a portion : Ex.
Fm d verle ayer,
Llegue a L6ndre8 en el ano
de 1838.
I^urio hace dos meses.
Cervantes nacio k mediados
del siglo diez y seis, y
murio a principios del
diez y siete.
I went to see him yesterday,
I arrived in London in the
year 1838.
He died two months ago.
Cervantes was bom about
the middle of the 16th
century, andfZi'gJtowards
the beginning of the
17th.
12. In the historical style the past perfect tense is
generally used, for which reason it has been called the
historical past tense : (See Par. 5) : Ex.
No se atrevieron los enemi- The enemy did not venture
gos 4 subir la cuesta, ni
dieron indicio de intentar
el asalto, pero se acer-
caron 4 tiro de piedra. —
(SoLis — Eist. de la Cou-
quista de Mexico.)
to ascend the hill, nor did
he give any indication of
attempting an assault,
but he approached within
a stone's throw.
LECT. XXI.] EMPLOYMENT OP THE TENSES. l43
Ya entonces se mostraron Then the allies proved vio-
por toda la lineavictorio- torious throughout the
80S los aliados. Recogie- whole line* The French
ronse los Franceses a su retired to their former
antigua posicion .... position.
(El Conde db Toreno — HisU de la Revol. de Espana.)
13. The observations made in the present tense, on
the manner of forming it with the help of auxiliaries,
are equally applicable to the past tense, by employing
these auxiliaries in their past form ; and in the transla-
tion the verb is put in the^osi tense accordingly : TCt.
Estaba escuchando. / was listening.
Estuvimos paseando. We were walking.
Vmds. no le vieron, peroyo You did not see him, but I
le vz. did.
Yo le conociaj mas ellos no I knew him, but they did
le coriocian. not know him.
il la encontro ; ^ no es ver- He met her ; did he not ?
dadf
fctttjue tense of the indioativb.
14. This tense indicates that something will exist or
take place at a time which is not yet arrived : Ex.
£l sera eligido. He will be elected.
Lo consider aremos. We will consider it.
Enviare la carta manana. J. shall send the letter to-
morrow.
15. Th.Q future tense is sometimes used in Spanish in-
stead of the present^ when something is affirmed, respect-
ing the certainty of which some doubt is entertained; as,
Vendrd, quizd, para amenasarme — He comes, perhaps, to
threaten me : — instead of Viene quizd, etc.
16. It is likewise used in Spanish instead of thejarg-
sent or past tense in interrogative sentences, when the in-
terrogator is almost persuaded that a contradictory reply
could not be given to his interrogation : Ex.
i JIabrd desgracia mayor Can there be a greater mis-
que la mia ? fortune than mine ?
^ Se habrd visto cosa mas Was there ever seen any
primorosa 2 thing more exquisite ?
144 VERBS. [lECT. XXI.
17. When shall and will are not employed as signs of
the English future tense, but as principal verbs denoting
a voluntary act, will, or threat, they must be translated
by verbs equivalent in meaning : Ex.
^ Quie're Ymd. prestarme su TF/ZZyou lend me your pen-
cortaplumas ? knife ?
Quiere ir, or, se obstina en He will go, although I de-
que ah de ir, aunque le sired him not to go.
dige que no fuera.
/ He de aguantar tal imper- Shall I suffer such imper-
tinencia ? tinence ?
Me he empenado en que ha I insist that it shall be as
de ser como digo. I say.
18. When shall and will are employed as substitutes
for the verbs which they represent, the same rule is to
be observed as with the auxiliary do when so employed :
See Par. 4 of this Lecture : Ex.
Yd no procedere, pero el I shall not proceed, but he
procederd, will.
Ella esperardf mas yo no She will wait, but I shall
esperare. not.
Vmds. lo evitardUf yo no lo You will avoid it,I i^/ZZ not.
evitare.
Quiere aventurarse ; i no es He will venture ; will he ?
verdad f
COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
19. This tense denotes a past action or state of being,
but at a period of which the present time forms a part ;
as, Le he escrito tres veces esta semana — I have written to
him three times this week.
In this sentence we see that the act of writing is
passed, but the period in which it has been performed,
namely, the week, still exists. This tense, therefore,
denotes an occurrence that has taken place during the
present day, week, month, year, century, or during any
period which is not entirely elapsed : Ex,
No le he visto hoy, ni en I have not seen him to-day,
todo este mes. nor during the whole of
this moTit^^,
lECT. XXI.] EMPLOYMENT OF THE TENSES. 145
Muchas obras de mevito han Many works of merit have
sido escritas durante el heen written during the
presente siglo. present century.
In a like manner it denotes an action, or a state of
being continued to the time of affirming it ; as, Hasta
hoy no he sentido dolor alguno — I have felt no pain what-
ever until to-day.
COMPOUND OF THE PAST TENSE OF THE INDICATIVE.
20. This tense, like the simple past, is divided into
the imperfect and ih.Q perfect, and the difference between
them is, that with the former the action is described to
have taken place at some unlimited period prior to the
occurrence of another action ; but with the latter, an
action is denoted to have occurred immediately before the
taking place of another, and is therefore always pre-
ceded by some adverb of time, expressive of that effect ;
such as, despues que, after ; luego que, or asi que, as soon
as ; no Men, scarcely : Ex.
Sahia acabado de almorzar I had finished hreakfasthQ'
dntes que el viniese. fore he came.
Ya habia oido la noticia. I had already heard the
news.
Llegaron asi que huhimos They arrived as soon as we
acabado de comer. had finished dinner.
No bien hube acabado de es- I had scarcely finished writ-
cribir cuando entro ella. ing when she entered.
The compound perfect is sometimes emphatically
expressed in the following manner : Acabado que hube
de escribir entro ella,
COMPOUND OF THE FUTURE OF THE INDICATIVE.
21. This tense denotes that an action or an event
will have occurred at or before the taking place of
another future action or event : Ex.
Man ana a esta hora ya lo We shall have known it by
habremos sabido. to-morrow at this hour.
Hahrdn esparcido la noticia They will have spread the
antes que se acabe el dia. news before the day is out.
H
146 VERBS. [lECT. XXI,
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
22. In this mood are given three tenses according to
the Grammar of the Spanish Academy — namely, the
present, the imperfect, and the future, with their com-
pounds. A verb in any tense of this mood denotes, as in
English, a subordination to some event expressed by
some other verb in the sentence. But as the English
subjunctive is not so striking as the Spanish, care should
be taken by the student to analyse every doubtful sen-
tence before he attempts to translate it.
23. In Spanish a verb in the simple present of the
subjunctive, or the imperfect of the same mood with the
termination ra, or se, may have reference to a present or
future subordinate action or state of being ; but the ter-
mination ria^ of the imperfect subjunctive, denotes a
future conditional action, or state : Ex.
Temo que lo sepa ahora, 6 I fear he may know it now,
manana. or to-morrow.
Aunque yo le amara ahora, Although I m,ight love him
6 despues. now, or afterwards.
Me pesaria mucho si no I would be very sorry if he
viniere. should not come.
24. In the compound present the verb may have re-
ference to a past or future occurrence : Ex.
Aunque me lo hay a dicho el Although he may have told
otro dia, no me acuerdo it me the other day, I no
ya de ello. longer remember it.
No volvere hasta que me I shall not return until they
hayan entrcgado el di- have delivered me the
nero. money.
25. But in the compound of the imperfect the verb can
only have reference to a past occurrence : Ex.
Le huhiera ido k ver ayer si I would have gone to see
huhiese sabido que estaba him yesterday had I
enfermo. known he was ill.
Me hahria pagado si hubiera He would have paid me if
tenido dinero en casa. he had had money at
home.
26. The future simple can only refer to a future
subordinate action or state of being : Ex.
lECT XXI.] EMPLOYMENT OP THE TENSES. 147
Le traer^ a Ymd. lo que me I will bring you whatever
dieren, they may give me.
Si permaneciere aqui algun If I should, or should I re-
tiempo se lo avisare, main here any time, I
will let you know.
The present of the subjunctive may be substituted for
this tense, except when the verb is preceded by the con-
ditional si; as, Todo lo que me den— All that they may
give me. Cuando vengan — When they (should) come.
27. The future •cojnpound refers to a past occurrence
subordinate to a future event : Ex.
Si el hubiere dejado Granada If he should have left Q-ra-
antes que le alcance mi nada before my letter
carta. (shoidd) reach him.
Aun cuando le hubiere es- If even he should have ivrit-
crito antes que llegase. ten him before he (might)
arrive.
The compound present of the subjunctive may be sub-
stituted for this tense, except when the verb is preceded
by the conditional si; as, Cuando haya acabado, or luego
que haya acabado »w tar^a, etc. — When I shall have
finished, or as soon as I should have finished my task,
etc. See Government of Verbs as relates to Moods and
Tenses, Lect. 28, Par. 8.
EMPLOYMENT OF THE TERMINATIONS ra, Se, AND rtttf OF
THE IMPERFECT TENSE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE*
28. A verb in the imperfect tense of the subjunctive
mood in Spanish has three terminations — namely, ra, s«,
and ria ; as, hablara, hablase, habiaria ; and the employ-
ment of the one or the other of these terminations is by
no means a matter of indifference. It happens the same
in English with the signs should, might, and would, of
the subjunctive mood,* the use of which so often embar-
rasses foreigners, and not unfrequently even Englishmen,
A Spaniard seldom errs in the application of the termi-
nations ra, se, and ria, although it would, perhaps, be
impracticable to give fixed rules for their employment to
♦ See the Author's English Grammar for the use of Spaniards, en
this subject.
148 TERBS. [lECT. XXI,
apply in all cases. Nevertheless the pupil is here pre-
sented with rules which, in most cases, will guide him
through what has been considered, by many, as one of
the intricate labyrinths in the Spanish language.
In the conjugations of verbs, the signs should , mightf
and would, are given as equivalents to the terminations
ra, se and ria ; yet they do not always correspond with
them in the order as they there appear. The most
general rule that can be given for the employment of
these terminations is, that ra or se correspond with the
signs might or should ; and ria corresponds with would.
This rule, however, will be subject to some exceptions ;
nevertheless the learner will find it very useful. A still
better rule, indeed, almost a general one, for those who
are acquainted with the French or Italian language, is,
that the termination ria corresponds with the conditional
of those two languages, and ra and se^ indiscriminately,
with the imperfect of the subjunctive.* To those who are
unacquainted with these languages, the following obser-
vations (many of which are extracted from the Grammab
OF THE Academy) will afford a comprehensive view of
the peculiar import of these inflections.
1st. When the verb in the imperfect of the subjunc-
tive is preceded by a conditional conjunction, such as s«,
con tal que, cuando, etc., if, provided, when, etc., or by an
interjection expressive of desire, either the termination
ra or se may be employed : Ex.
* The plan set forth by the Royal Academy of Madrid, and
adopted by almost every Spanish philologer, has, for the sake of
UTiil'ormity, been followed in this Grammar, with regard to the
placing of the three terminations, ra, se, and ria, of Spanish verbs in
the imperfect tense of the subjunctive mood. But, in reality, the
termination ria indicates the verb to be in a conditional mood, and
not subjunctive. And if we analyse these terminations, we shall
find that amdra, and amdse, are derived from the Latin subjunctive
amarem; and amavissem ; and that the termination ria—amaria —
and the future of the indicative — amare — are derived from the
Spanish infinitive amar and the auxiliary haber ; thus, amare, from
amar-he ; amards, from amar-has, etc. ; and amaria, from amar-
habia, or amar-hia, etc. Thus it is that amdra and amdse coincide
■with the French and Italian subjunctive, y'amflsse, and ioamassi;
and amaria, with the conditional of those languages, jaimerais, and
to amerei. (See also Lect. 24, Par. 4, on the ancient manner of
forming the tenses of Spanish verbs.)
LECT. XXI.] EMPLOYMENT OF THE TENSES. 14d
Si tuvieraj or tuviese dinero If I had money I would
compraria libros. buy books.
Aun cuando tratara, or Even when he should, or
tratase de remediar el though he might endea-
mal. vour to remedy the evil.
Ojaldfuera, or fuese cierto. Would to God it were true.
2nd. When the verb in the imperfect of the sub-
junctive is not preceded by a conditional conjunction, the
termination ra or ria may be used : Ex.
Bueno fuera, OTseria que le It would be well that they
desterrasen. banished him.
De buena gana saliera, or I would willingly go out.
saldria.
It results from the foregoing examples that the ter-
mination r« accommodates itself sometimes to serve in the
place of ria or se; but that the latter two always differ in
signification : also that ra and se may be preceded by a
conditional conjunction, but ria cannot.
3rd. Se is generally employed if the imperfect sub-
junctive be preceded by a relative, or by the words cuanto
or cuantos, as much or as many : Ex.
Premiare a todos los que I will reward all those who
huhiesen hecho su deber. may have done their duty.
Compre Ymd. cuanto, or Buy as much, or as many
cuantos quisiese. as you wish.
4th. Ria is employed to denote a supposition that
something may have occurred at any past period : Ex.
Le pareceria que yendo It perhaps appeared to him
temprano la alcanzaria. that by going early he
would overtake her.
5th . When a verb in the imperfect of the subjunctive,
governed by a conjunction, is preceded by a verb in any
of the past tenses of the indicative or the subjunctive,
either of the terminations m or se may be employed with
the governed verb, when it expresses a power or a duty ;
but if it denote a will or an inclination, ria is required :
Ex.
Le Uame para que saliera, I called him that he might
or saliese conmigo. go out with me.
150 TERBS. [lECT. XXI.
Si liubiera dichoque vmtera If he had said that you
or viniese Vmd should come, or were to
come. ....
No creiamos que le reeom- We did not think that he
pensaria. would reward him.
Enesecasohubierapensado In that case I should have
que lo arreglaria. thought that he would
arrange it.
6th. If the governing verb denote Sipromtse, we should
only employ the termination ria with the verb governed :
Ex.
Prometio que me prestaria He promised that he would
el dinero. lend me the money.
Me asegurd que no me ex^ "B-e assured me that he would
Iria. not expose me.
7th. When the conjunction if is employed in the sense
of whether, the termination ria is required in the trans-
lation: Ex.
No s6 si me lo concederia 6 I do not know if, or whether
no, he would grant it to me,
8th. When the expression had I, or had he, etc., is
used instead of if I had, etc., the termination ra or se
may be employed in the translation : Ex.
Si tuviera, or tuviese buenos Had I, or if I had good
libros leeria. books I would read.
9th. When were is employed in the sense of would be^
the termination ria is required in the translation : Ex.
Seria locura ir con est© It were folly to go in this
tiempo. weather.
MANNER OF TRANSLATING may, might, should, AND wouldf
AS PRINCIPAL VERBS.
29. When these words are not employed in English as
signs of the subjunctive or conditional moods, but are
used as principal verbs, they are translated into Spanish
by verbs corresponding with them in signification; thus,
may and might denote power or liberty ; should denotes
duty or obligation ; and would expresses an inclination of
LECT. XXII.] PARTICIPLES. 15 J
the mind. May and might are translated by poder ;
should by deher ; and would by querer : Ex.
Fuedo eoncluir cuando I may finish it when I like.
quiero.
JPodia haberlo destniido. I might have destroyed it.
No debian molestarle. They should not molest him.
No quiso admitirlo. He tvould not accept it.
Note. — It may not be improper to notice here that can
and could are also translated by poder, as they likewise
denote power; though it is a power different from that
expressed by rnay and might, inasmuch as the latter two
denote a moral power or a permission; whereas the
former two denote a physical or absolute power ; as, I can
write now, but I could not before — Puedo eacribir ahora,
pero antes no podia.
30. When may, might, can^ should, and would are
employed as substitutes for the verbs which they repre-
sent, the same rule is observed as with the auxiliaries doj
shall, and tvill, noticed in Par. 4 and 18 of this Lec-
ture: Ex.
Vmd. puede oir, pero yo no You can hear, but I can^
puedo. not.
Yo pudiera haber hablado, I might have spoken, and so
y el tambien. might he.
Debiera haherlo dicho; ^no He should have said so;
es verdad ? should he not ?
LECTURE XXII.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES.
1. There are two participles to be considered, the one
active or present, the other passive or past. Participles
active derived from verbs of the first conjugation end in
ando; as, hablando, speaking; those of the second and
third conjugations end in iendo ; as, temiendo, fearing ;
sujriendo, suffering. Participles past derived irom verbs
152 PABTICIPLES. [lECT. XXU
of the first conjugation end in ado ; as hahJadOj spoken ;
those of the second and third conjugations end in tdo; as,
temido, feared ; sufrido, suffered. We will first see how
participles are employed as forming part of the verb.
2. The participle active, as part of a verb, denotes
action or state of being, and is preceded by some verb to
denote the time of action or being : Ex.
Esta, estaba, ha estado, or He is, was, has been, or will
estard escribiendo. be writing.
3. The participle active is sometimes used without the
governing verb, in an absolute manner, either with or
without reference to any particular time : Ex.
En fin se va, creyendo que In fine, he is going, believ-
le desprecia su amada. — ing that his beloved des-
(MoRATiN — El Vieio y la pises him.
Nina.)
Y dime, hahlando de otra ^nd tell me, speaking of
materia que nos interesa another matter that in-
mas. (Idem — El Baron.) terests us more.
En vie'ndole : en oyendo. In seeing him : in hearing.
Hablando la verdad no se. Speaking the truth, I don't
know.
Note. — Sometimes the participle active is silent before
a noun ; as in the following passage from Ginez Perez
DE Hita's Guerras Civiles de Granada :
El marques {siendo) sahedor, The marquis (being) aware
de que Abenhumeya that Abenhumeya was so
estaba tan puj ante yaper- powerful and well pre-
cibido para la batalla . . . pared for the battle . . .
4. When in English the participle active has reference
to a noun or pronoun that is not the nominative case, the
participle is frequently rendered in Spanish by a verb in
some tense of the indicative or subjunctive mood. But
should the English participle active refer to a noun or
pronoun that is the nominative case, it is translated into
Spanish by a participle active also : Ex.
Se lo di al dependiente que I gave it to the clerk acting
hacia de apoderado. as agent.
Haciendo yo de apoderado, /, acting as agent, wrote to
le escribi sobre el asunto. him on the subject.
I
LEOT. XXII.] PABTICIPLES. 153
5. When the participle active of the verbs to go and to
come is preceded by any tense of the verb to be, denoting
an action about to take place, the participle is translated
by an equivalent verb in the same mood and tense as
those in which the verb to be is placed : Ex.
Nos vamos a embarcar hoy. We are going to embark to-
day.
Si Vmd. pasare por aqui. If you should be coming this
way.
Viene hoy. He is coming to-day.
Iban a salir. They were going out.
6. Sometimes, particularly after verbs that denote in-
tention, and after the verbs to see, to hear, and io feel, the
participle active, or the infinitive may be used indif-
ferently in English ; but in such cases the infinitive is
required in Spanish : Ex.
La casa que intento com/?rar. The house I intend pur-
chasing, or to purchase.
Hago idea de volver en una I purpose returning, or to
semana. return in a week.
Los veo venir. I see them coming.
La oigo llorar. I hear her cry, or crying.
Senti heldrseme la sangre. I felt my hlood freezing.
7. Whenever the employment of the participle active
is likely to produce ambiguity, it is preferable to resolve
it into some tense of the verb from which it is derived :
for instance, in the example Los vimos yendo a pasear
esta manana — We saw them going to walk this morning,
the sense is ambiguous in both languages ; for it is not
clearly demonstrated by the participle active whether we
or they were going to walk ; it would therefore be prefer-
able to say,
Los vimos cuando iban d We saw them when they
pasear esta manana, or were going to walk this
morning, or
Los vimos cuando ibamos a We saw them when we were
pasear esta manana. going to walk this morn-
ing.
8. When the past participle is used with any part of
the verb haber, it is indeclinable ; but when used with the
h5
154 PARTICIPLES. [lect. xxn.
verbs ser, or estar, it agrees in gender and inmiber with
the nominative of these verbs ; see also Par. 14 : Ex.
He dado ; habiamos visto. I have given ; we had seen.
Soy amado^ or amada;seran I am loved; they will be
vendidos, or vendidas. sold.
EstancansadoSjOrcansadas. They are tired.
9. The participle past is frequently nsed in Spanish in
an absolute manner; in which case one of the participles
active, habiendo, siendo, or estando, is understood. The
participle past so used must agree in number and gender
with the noun forming the subject of discourse : Ex.
Entrado pues Don Pedro Don Pedro then having
en la tienda de Don entertd Don Beltran's
Beltran, dijole que era tent, said to him that it
tiempo que se fuesen. — was time they should
(Mariana — Hist. Gen. depart.
de Espana.
Logradas estas ventajas, se These advantages being
faciHta la sabiduria. — gamed, knowledge is fa-
(Grammar of the Aca- cilitated.
DEMY.)
10. We have now to consider how participles are em-
ployed in their capacity as nouns and adjectives ; and first
of the participle active.
When in English the participle active is preceded by
an article, a possessive or a demonstrative pronoun, a
preposition, or by any word that makes it assume the
character of a noun, or when used by itself in that capa-
city, it is generally rendered in Spanish by a noun or an
infinitivey and sometimes by a past participle : Ex.
El silbido del viento. The whistling of the wind.
Su venida me sorprendi(S. His coming surprised me.
Aquel halar de las ovejas. That bleating of the sheep.
Se dedica al dibvjo. She devotes herself /o draw-
ing.
El andar contribuye a la Walking is conducive to
salud. health.
Sin haberlo observado. Without having observed it.
Me gusta el leer. I am fond of reading.
Es obrar con prudencia. It is acting with prudence.
I
LECT. XXII.] PAETICIPLES. 155
From this rule may be generally excepted those active
participles that are preceded by the prepositions in and
hy^ in which cases the participle active is used in Spa-
nish without the preposition : Ex.
Trdbajando se conserva la By working we preserve
salud. health.
Co»sic?eranc?o el asunto, etc. In considering ^q subject,
etc.
Frequently, however, when the English participle
active is preceded by the preposition hy, it may be trans-
lated by the infinitive preceded by con; as. Horses become
strengthened by exercising them — Los caballos se forta-
lecen con ejercitarlos, or ejercitdndolos.
11. Instead of a compound participle, a simple parti-
ciple active is sometimes used in English in an absolute
manner; in such cases the compound infinitive is required
in the translation ; as. Their coming late was the cause of
his not seeing them : {i.e. their having come late, etc.)
£11 haber ellos venido tardefue casua que el no los viese.
12. There is a kind of participle active in Spanish
employed in the capacity of verbal adjectives. Those de-
rived from verbs of the first conjugation end in ante^ as
amante; those of the second and third conjugations end
in iente, as obediente, viviente: they agree in number with
the noun to which they refer, and are common to both
genders. They sometimes also stand in the place of
nouns ; as, Un marido amante — A loving husband. La
hija obediente — The obedient daughter. Los autores vi'
vientes — Living authors. Los creyentes — The believers.
Los oyentes — The hearers.
Observe, that participles active, ending in ndo^ as
amandoj obedeciendoj viviendoj are never used as adjec-
tives.
13. There remains now to consider the participle past
in the capacity of an adjective. It is so used when it
does not denote action, but a state of being referring to,
or characterizing some noun, and agrees withit in Spanish
in number and gender; as. El soldado vencido — The con-
quered soldier. Los soldados venddos — The conquered
soldiers. Una muger casada — ^A married woman. Mugeres
casadas — Married women.
156
CONJUQATIOW OF TERES. [lECT. XXHI.
14. When the participle past is employed with any
part of the verb ser or estar^ to be, it likewise assumes
the character of an adjective, and agrees in number and
gender with the person or thing to which it alludes :
Ex.
El hijo es parecido al padre,
y la hija es parecida a la
madre.
Son palacios bien construi-
dos y casas bien acaba-
das.
£1 esta nombrado.
JNosotros estamos perdidos.
Los platos estan queh^ados.
Las casas estan vendidas.
The son is like the father,
and the daughter is like
the mother.
They are well constructed
palaces and well finished
houses.
He is appointed.
We are lost.
The plates are broken.
The houses are sold.
LECTURE XXIII.
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
1. Previous to the conjugations of regular verbs,
those of the auxiliary verbs haber and ser, to have, and
to be, are here given, as it is necessary that they should
be first learnt, from their peculiar office in assisting in
the conjugation of other verbs. The verb tener has also
been conjugated next to haber ^ as they are both expressed
by the same verb in English ; and estar has been con-
jugated next to ser, for the same reason. Their signifi-
cations and manner of employment are explained after
their conjugations.
*^* In the following conjugations of verbs an accent is
placed over the syllable on which the stress of voice
should fall, in order to assist the learner, until he
arrives at the rules for the Accentuation of Verbs,
in Lect. 24j Pab. 10.
LEOT. XXin.] CONJUGATION OP VERBS.
167
AUXILIAEY VERB, EABER, TO HAVE.
INFINITIVE MOOD,
Haber, To have.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present
Tense.
Singular.
Plural.
Yo he,
I have.
Nosotros hemos,* We have.
tu has,
thou hast.
vo36tros habeis, you have.
el ha,
he has.
ellos ban, they have.
To habia, I had.
tu habias, thou hadst,
el habia, he had.
Past Imperfect Tense.
Nosotros habiamos. We bad.
vosotros habiais, you had.
ellos habian, they had.
Past Perfect Tense.
Yo htibe, I had.
td hubiste, thou hadst.
el hubo, he had.
Nosotros hubimos, We had.
vosotros hubisteis, you had.
ellos hubieron, they had.
Future Tense.
Yo habre, I shall or will have.
id habr&.s, thou shalt, etc., have,
el habra, he shall, etc., have.
Nos6troshabremos,We shall have
vosotros habreis, you shall have
eUos habran they shall, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Yo h&,ya, I may have.
til h^yas, thou mayest have
el h^ya, he may have.
Imperfect Tense.
Nosotros hay&.mos,We may have.
vosotros hay^s, you may have.
hayan, they may, etc.
Singular.
[or would have.
Yo
hubi^ra,
hubiese, habria,
I should, might,
16
hubieras,
hubieses, habrias.
thou shouldst, etc.
el
hubiera.
hubiese, habria,
he should, etc.
Flural.
Nosotros hubieramos, hubiesemos, habriamos, We should, etc.
vosotros hubierais, hubieseis, habriais, you should, etc.
ellos hubieran, hubiesen, habrian, they should, etc.
♦ Or habemoSf now, however, little used.
158 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. [lECT. XXlTL
Future Tense,
Si yo hubiere,
si t6 hubieres,
ei el hubiere,
If I should hare,
if thou shouldst have,
if he should have
Flural.
Si no86tros hubieremos, If we should hare,
si vosotros hubiereis, if you should have.
si ellos hubieren, if they should have.
Farticiple Active . . . Uabiendo, Having.
Note 1. — As this verb is now only employed as an
auxiliary, the compound tenses are omitted. Formerly
it was used as an equivalent to tener, and was conjugated
throughout the compound tenses, having habido for its
participle past. Haber is also used as an impersonal
verb : (See Lect. 26.)
Note 2. — In the conjugations of all the following verbs,
the personal pronouns in Spanish are omitted, as in most
eases they are not required: (See Lect. 14, Pab. 12.)
ACTIVE VERB, TENER, TO HAVE.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Compound.
I Hab6r tenido. To have had.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Compound of the Present.
Simple.
Ten^
To have.
INI
Present Tense.
Tengo,
I have.
tienes,
thou hast.
tiene,
he has.
tenemos,
we have.
teneis,
you have.
tienen,
they have.
Past
Imperfect Tense.
Tenia,
I had.
tenias.
thou hadst.
tenia,
he had.
teniamos,
"- we had.
teniais,
you had.
tenian,
they had.
He tenido,
has tenido,
ha tenido,
hemos tenido,
habeis tenido,
han tenido,
I have had.
thou hast had.
he has had.
we have had.
you have had.
they have had.
Compound of the Past Imperfect.
Habia tenido, I had had.
habias tenido, thou hadst had.
habia tenido, he had had.
habiamos tenido, we had had.
habiais tenido, you had had.
habian tenido, they had had.
LECT.
XXIII.]
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
159
Past Perfect Tense.
T6ve, I had.
tuviste, thou hadst.
t6vo, he had.
tuvimos, we had.
tuvisteis, you had.
tuvieron, they had.
Future Tense.
Tendre, I shall or will have.
tendr&.s, thou shalt, etc., have»
tendr^, he shall, etc., have,
tendremos, we shall, etc., have,
tendreis, you shall, etc., have,
tendi^ they shalX> ete,, have.
Compound of the Fast Perfect.
Htibe tenido, I had had.
hubiste tenido^ thou hadst had.
bubo tenido,. he had had.
hubimos tenido, we had had.
hubisteis tenido, you had had.
hubieron tenido^ they had had.
Compound of the Future.
Habre tenidoy I shall have had.
habras tenido, thau shalt, etc.
habra tenido, he shall, etc.
habretnos tenido, we shall, etc.
habreis tenido, you shall, etc.
habr^u tenido, they ^liall, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE M00a>.
Present Tense.
Tenga, I may hare,
tengas, thou mayest have-,
tenga, he may have,
teng&mos, we may have,
tengais, you may have,
tengan, they may have.
Compound of the Present.
H&ya tenido, I may have had
hayas tenidoy
haya tenido,
hayamos tenido^
hayais tenido,
hayan tenido,
thoumayest,etc.
he may, etc.
we may, etc.
you may, etc.
they may, etc.
Imperfect Tense^
tuviese^ tendria,
tuvieses, tendrias,
tuviese, tendria,
tuvieramos, tuviesemos, tendriamos
tuvierais, tuvieseis, tendriais,
tuviesen, tendrian.
Tuviera,
tuvieras,
tuviera,
tuvieran,
I should, might, or would have^
thou shouldst, mightest, etc.
he should, might, etc.
we should, might, etc.
you should, might, etc.
they should, might, etc.
Compowbd of the Inrperfect Tense,
hubieae, habria, tenido, I should, etc., have hai
hubieses, habrias, tenido, thou shouldst, etc.
hubiese, habria, tenido, he should, might, etc.
hubieramos, hubiesemos, habriamos, tenido, we should, might, etc.
hubierais, hubieseis, habriais, tenido, you should, might, etc.
habrian, tenido, they should, might, etc.
Hubiera,
hubieras,
hubiera,
hubieran, hubiesen.
Future Tense,
Si tuviere, If I should have.
si tuvieres, if thou shouldst have,
ei tuviere, if he should have,
si tuvieremo3, if we should have.
si tuviereis, if you should have,
si tuvieren, if they should have.
160 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. [lECT. XXIU.
Compound of the Future.
Si hubiere tenido, If I should have had.
Bi hubieres tenido, if thou shouldst have had.
si hubiere tenido, if he should have had.
Bi hubieremos tenido, if we should have had.
ei hubiereis tenido, if you should have had.
si hubieren tenido, if they should have had.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Ten tti, Have thou.
tenga el, let him have.
tengamos nos6tro8, let us have.
tened vos6tro8, have you.
tengan ellos, let them have.
Participle Active . . . Teniendo, Having.
Compound ditto . . . Ilabiendo tenido. Having had.
Farticiple Fast. . . . Tenido, Had.
OBSERVATION.
2. When tlie verb to have is used in English in the
capacity of an auxiliary, it is translated haber; but when
employed as an active verb, denoting possession, it must
be translated tener. We therefore say, He comprado un
lihro, for, / have bought a book ; but we must say, Tengo
un libro, for, / have a book. In the first instance, to have
is used as an auxiliary to the verb to buy ; but in the
second, it is employed as an active verb, denoting the pos-
session of the book. Nevertheless, in familiar discourse,
we sometimes, though not frequently, notice tener govern-
ing a participle, in which case the participle is inde-
clinable ; as, Tengo ido dos veces — I have been twice.
Tenemos hablado con el — We have spoken to him. But if
there be a noun or pronoun in the sentence governed by
tener, the participle is made to agree with it ; as, Tengo
ya comprados mis libros — I have my books already bought.
Tengo leidas todas esas novelas — I have read all those
novels.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SUS, TO BK
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Simple. Compotmd.
Ser, To be. ( Haber sido, To have been.
i
IBCT. XXm.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 161
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
S6y,
feres,
es,
I am.
thou art.
he is.
Somos,
86is,
son.
We are.
you are.
they are.
Era,
eras,
era,
Past Impel
I was.
thou wast,
he was.
-feet Tense.
Eramos,
erais,
eran.
We were,
you were,
they were.
Fui,
fuiste,
fue,
Past PerJ
I was.
thou wast,
he was.
^ect Tense,
Fuimos,
fuisteis,
fueron,
We were,
you were,
they were.
Future Tense.
Sere,
ser^,
serk,
I shall or will he.
thou shalt, etc., be.
he shall, etc., be.
Seremos,
sereis,
ser&n,
We shall or will be.
you shall, etc., be.
they shall, etc., be.
COMPOUND TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
Compound of the Present.
He sido, etc. I have been, etc.
Compound of the Past Imperfect.
Habia sido, etc. I had been, etc.
Compound of the Past Perfect.
Hfibe sido, etc. I had been, etc.
Compound of the Future.
Habre sido, etc. I shall have been, eto.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Sea,
seas,
sea.
Fuera,
fueras,
fuera,
fueramos,
fuerais,
fueran.
Present Tense.
I may be,
thou mayest be.
he may be.
Seamos,
seals.
We may be.
you may he.
they may be.
Imperfect Tense.
fuese, seria, I should, might, or would be.
fueses, serias, thou shouldst, mightest, etc., be.
fuese, seria, he should, might, or would be.
fuesemos, seriamos, we should, might, or would be.
fueseis, serials, you should, might, or would be.
fuesen, serian, they should, might, or would be.
162
CONJUGATION OF VEEBS. [lECT. XXIIL
Future Tense.
Si fuere, If I should be.
si fueres, if thou shouldst be.
ci fuere, if he should be.
Si fueremos, If we should be.
si fuereis, ifyou should be.
si fueren, ifthey should be.
COMPOUND TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD,
Compound of the Present.
Haya side, etc. I may have been, etc
Compound of the Imperfect.
Hubi6ra sido, etc. \
Hubiese sido, etc. > I should, might, or would have been, etc
Habria sido, etc.
Compound of the Future.
Hubi6re sido, etc. If I should have been.
nCPERATIVE MOOD.
8e t6, Be thou,
s^a el, let him be.
seimos no36tro8, let us be.
Bed vosotros, be you.
sean ellos, let them be.
Participle Active. . Siendo, Being.
Compound ditto . . Habicndo sido. Having been.
Participle Fast . . Sido, Been.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ESTAR, TO BE.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Simple,
Est^r, To Be.
Estoy,
est^,
est*.
Est&ba,
estabas,
estaba,
I Haber est&do, To have been.
I am.
thou art.
he is.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Fresent Tense,
Estamos,
estais,
est-^,
We arc
you are.
they are.
Fast Imperfect Tense.
I was. I Estabamos, "We were.
thou wast. I est^bais, you were,
he was. | estaban, they were.
LEOT. XXni.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
163
Estfive,
estuviste,
estuvo,
Estar6,
estaras,
Past Perfect Tense.
I was. Eatuvimos, "We were,
thou wast. Estuvisteis, you were,
he was. estuvieron, they were.
Future Tense.
I shall or will be.
thou shalt, etc., be.
he shall, etc., be.
Estaremos, "We shall or will be.
estareis, you shall, etc., be.
estar^, they shall, etc., be.
COMPOUND TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
Compound of the Present.
He est^do, etc. I have been, etc.
Compound of the Imperfect.
Habia est^do, etc. I had been, etc
Compound of the Perfect.
Htibe est§ido, etc. I had been, etc
Compound of the Future.
Habre estado, etc. I shall have been, eto.
estes,
este,
I may be.
thou mayest be.
he may be.
STJBJUNCTIVB MOOD,
Present Tense.
Estemos,
We may be.
you may be.
they may be.
esteis,
esten,
Imperfect Tense.
Estuviera, estuviese, estaria, I should, might, etc., be. ,
estuvieras, estuvieses, estarias, thou shouldst, etc., be.
estuviera, estuviese, estaria, he should, might, etc., be.
estuvieramos, estuviesemos, estariamos, we should, might, etc., be.
estuvierais, estuvieseis, estariais, you should, might, etc., be.
estuvieran, estuviesen, estarian, they should, might, etc., be.
Future Tense.
Si estuviere. If I should be.
si estuvieres, if thou shouldst be.
si estuviere, if he should be.
Si estuvieremos. If we should bo.
si estuviereis, if you should be.
si estuvieren, if they should be.
COMPOUND TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Compound of the Present.
H^ya estado, etc I may have been, etc.
164 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. [lECT. XXHI.
Compound of the Imperfect,
Hubi^ra est&do, etc. ]
Hubiese estkdo, etc. > I skould, might, or would have been, etc.
Habria estkdo, etc. )
Compound of the Future,
Si hubiere estkdo, etc. If I should have been, etc
mPERATIVB MOOD.
Est& t(i, Be thou,
este el, let him be.
esteraos nos6tro8, let us be.
estad vos6tro8, be you.
esten ellos, let them be.
Tarticiple Active . . Est&ndo, Being.
Compound ditto . . Habiendo estkdo, Having been.
Participle Past , . Estado, Been.
3. When the auxiliary to have precedes an infinitive,
it is rendered tener qve : Ex.
Tengo que hacer ahora. / have to do at present.
Tuve que decirle. / had to tell him.
Tendremos que ir manana. We shall have to go to-
morrow.
4. But should a noun expressive of any sentiment,
feeling, or duty, intervene between the two verbs, then
de is used instead of que : Ex.
Tengo el gu^to de anun- I have the pleasure to in-
ciarle. form you.
Tuve la sa^js/occwn c?^ verla. I had the satisfaction to
see her.
5. And when to he precedes an infinitive, it is trans-
lated haber de, or deber, or deber de : Ex.
Ella ha de cantar, or, debe She is to sing this evening.
cantar, or debe de cantar
esta noche.
Nosotros he7nos de ser, or de- We are to be the witnesses.
bemos de ser los testigos.
6. The past perfect tense of haber is sometimes used
governing an infinitive with the preposition de in the
sense of to be within an ace of; and to be compelled to : Ex.
I
LECT. XXIII.] CONJITGATION OP VERBS, 165
Este liecho hulo de compro- This act was very near
meter el exito de la expe- compromising the success
dicion. of the expedition.
Tal fue su conducta que Such was his conduct that
huhe de despedirlo. I was forced to dismiss
him.
7. When haber is employed as an impersonal verb
(see Lect. 26), it also requires que before an infinitive :
Ex.
g* Hay algo que Jiacer f Is there anything to do ?
No hay que temer. There is nothing to fear.
8. In English the compound tenses of the verb to go,
to come, and to arrive, are sometimes formed with the
verb to he ; in Spanish, however, the compound tenses of
every verb, except passive verbs, must be formed with
haher ; as, Se han ido — They are gone. Hemos venido —
We are come. Ha llegado — She is come.
9. When in English the verb to he precedes adjectives
expressive of the state of one's feelings, physical or moral,
such as hungry^ thirsty^ warm, cold, sleepy, afraid, ashamed^
etc., it is translated tener, and the adjective is rendered
by a corresponding noun in Spanish ; as, Tengo hambre
y sed — I am hungry and thirsty. Tienen calor y no frio —
They are warm, and not cold. Teniamos miedo — We
were afraid. Tengo sueno — I am sleepy. Tiene verguenza
— He is ashamed.
The same construction isalso observed when we allude
to a person's age ; as. Que edad tiene ? — How old is he ?
Time cincuenta anos de edad — He is fifty years old.
OBSERVATIONS ON SEE AND ESTAS,
10. In the foregoing conjugations of these two verbs,
both are translated by the same verb in English — namely,
io he ; yet by no means can they be indiscriminately used
in Spanish, since they differ materially from each otherin
signification. It is therefore essentially necessary that
the learner be acquainted with their peculiar meaning
and use ; a matter that frequently embarrasses students
of the Spanish language, and which has justly been con-
166 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. [lECT. XXIII.
eidered one of its greatest difficulties to surmouiit, bill
which it is hoped the following observations will remove.
When we wish to express the absolute, natural, or
inherent quality of any thing, the qualities of the mind,
the natural beauties and defects of the body, and all
general truths, we must employ ser : Ex.
El oro es pesado. Gold is heavy.
La piedra es dura. Stone is hard.
La nieve es blanca. Snow is white.
Ellos son humildes. They are humble.
El es docto. He is learned.
Ella es hermosa. She is handsome.
El es ciego. He is blind.
La costumbre es otra na- Custom is second nature.
turaleza.
La necesidades madre de la Necessity is the mother of
invencion. invention.
But to denote any accidental circumstance, chemical
and mechanical changes, locality, the emotions of the mind,
or when we speak of the state of one's health, we mubt
use estar : Ex,
Estoy pronto. I am ready.
Estd durmiendo. He is asleep.
Esta agua estd caliente. This water is warm.
El vino ya estd agrio. The wine is already sour.
Estan en Madrid. They are in Madrid.
Estare aqui manana. I shall he here to-morrow.
Estd triste. Estoy contento. She is sad. I am contented.
Estoy bueno. Estan males. I am well. They are ill.
In the following example, the learner will observe the
striking difference in the meaning of these two verbs :
Este es el nino que esta enfermo — This is the child that is
ill. Here we see that the absolute being of the child is
expressed by ser, but the accidental circumstance of its
being ill is denoted by estar.
In speaking of a fruit, the peculiar nature of which is
sour, we must say, Esta fruta es agria — This fruit is
eour : but if we change the verb ser into estar, we denote
that the fruit became sour by some accidental circum-
stance, or that, from its being gathered too early, it had
LECT. XXm.] CONJTTGATIOTr OP VERBS. 167
not reached the necessary degree of maturity, and not that
it belonged to any species of fruit of a naturally sour
kind. Again : if we allude to two men, one with a wooden
leg, and the other walking with both legs, assisted by
crutches, we should express the lameness of the former by
the verb ser, because it is evident that it is permanent ;
thus, Aquel homhre es cojo — That man is lame ; but the
lameness of the latter may be translated either es cojo, or
estd cojo, according as we considered it permanent or
temporary.
We must employ ser to express possession, and also to
denote what a thing is intended for : Ex.
La hacienda es de ella, pero The property is hers, but
el dinero es mio. the money is mine.
Los libros son para estudiar. Books are to study from.
Esta carta es para Vmd. This letter is for you.
Likewise to signify the materials of which things are
formed: Ex.
Este reloj es de oro. This is a gold watch.
Ese pano es de lana de Sa- That cloth is of Saxony
jonia. wool.
Estar is always employed with the participle active ;
as, Estoy leyendo — I am reading. Estaban escribiendo —
They were writing.
i&i^r cannot be employed before & participle active, nor
estar before a noun : both may be used with the other
parts of speech respectively, according as the one or the
other is required.
JSer is required to form the passive voice; as. Son
amados — They are loved. Fuimos elegidos — We were
elected.
There are some instances in which either ser or estar
may be used, according to the meaning we wish to give to
the construction. For instance, / am of the same opinion^
may be translated. Sot or Estoy del mismo parecer ; but
with ser, an unalterable state of opinion is meant, whereas
with estar, only casual opinion is expressed. Again, Esq
es muy alto, and Eso esta muy alto — That is very high.
The first expression refers to something that is lof.y in
stature, etc. ; but the second, to something placed or
located very high.
168 COXJTJGATION OF VERBS. [lECT. XXIH.
Some adjectives also vary their meaning, according as
tHey are employed with ser or estar : Ex.
Ser bueno. Estar bueno. To he good. To he -well.
Ser vivo Estar vivo. To he lively. To he alive.
Ser despierto. Estar despierto.To he vigilant. To he awake.
Ser maio, Estar maJo. To he wicked. To he ilL
FXERCISE ON THE VERBS SER AND ESTAR.
Arion was the first inventor of tragic verse. The
tragico verso
Athenians were the first who built a permanent theatre.
Ateniense fabricar estable teatro
The theatre at Athens was under the care of the
de Atenas d cuidado
principal magistrates. Iron is hard. How soft this
magistrado hierro duro blando
iron is already. These cherries are not ripe. The
ya cereza maduro
orange is a very wholesome fruit. These grapes are
naranja sane uva
yet sour. He is a very kind man ; but how angry
todavia agrio benigno enojado
he was! Although [it is some time] that he is ill,
aunque hace tiempo
nevertheless he is not an infirm man. Deceit is
sinembargo enfermizo engano
odious. Flattery ' should be despised. He has been
odioso lisonja despreciado
blind these three months. She is very pale. They were
ciego hace pdlido
frightened. He is a poor cripple. If they should be
espantado pobre estropeado
there, tell them that I shall be at home the whole day.
alii diga en casa
He was much agitated ; but he is more quiet now.
agitado sosegado ahora
LEOT. XXrV.] CONJUGATION OP VERBS. 169
He is very tractable, and is satisfied with his situation.
d6cil satisfecho colocacion.
The house is mine, but the furniture is his. Is this hat
muebles
yours ? — ^No ; it is my brother's. The message was for
recado
him. This is a silver cup. The coat is of superfine
taza casaca superior
cloth. What is he doing ? He is sleeping. Quarrels
haciendo durmiendo quimera
are detestable, and envy is despicable. She is beloved
envidia despreciable amada
by everybody. He is a very dull man. We were
triste
dull the whole day. How tiresome he is ! We are very
cansado
tired,
cansado.
LECTURE XXIV.
CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS.
i. The infinitives of all Spanish verbs end in one or
other of the following terminations — namely, ar^ er, ir ;
as, hablar, to speak; temer, to fear ; sufrir, to suffer : those
ending in ar are of the first conjugation ; those in er of
the second ; and those in ir of the third. All regular
verbs of the first conjugation vary their endings so as to
correspond with those exhibited in the following conju-
gation of the verb hablar ; all those of the second con-
jugation correspond with the terminations oi temer; and
all those of the third correspond with those of sufrir,
FIRST CONJUGATON, EABLAR, TO SPEAK.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Simple. Compound.
Hablar, To speak. 1 Haber habl§ido, To have spoken.
170
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. [LEOT. XZIT*
nrDICATTVB MOOD.
H&blo, I speak,
hablas, thou speakest.
hkbla, he speaks.
Present Tense,
Habl&mos,
habl&is,
h&blan.
"We speak,
you speak,
they speak.
Past Imperfect Tense,
Ilablaba, I spoke,
hablkbas, thou spokest.
hablkba, he spoke.
Habl&bamos, "We spoke,
hablibais, you spoke,
hablaban, they spoke.
Past Perfect Tense,
Hable, I spoke. Hablfimos,
habl^te, thou spokest, habl^teis,
bablo, he spoke. hablaron,
"We spoke,
you spoke,
they spoke.
Future Tense.
Hablare,
hablar^,
hablar^,
I shall or will speak,
thou shalt spe^.
he shall speak.
Hablaremos, We shall or will speak
hablareis, you shall speak,
hablaran, they shall speak.
COMPOUND TENSES OP THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
Compound of the Present.
He habl&do, etc. I have spoken, etc
Compound of the Imperfect.
Habia hablado, etc. I had spoken, etc
Compound of the Perfect.
H6be hablado, etc. I had spoken, etc
Compound of the Future.
Habr6 hablado, etc. I shall or will have spoken, etc.
SUliJUNUTlVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
H&ble,
hftbles,
hable.
1 may speak,
thou mayest speak,
he may speak.
Hablemos,
hableis,
h&blen,
"We may speak,
you may speak,
they may speak
LECT. XXIV.] CONJUGATION OF VERSa. 171
Imperfect Tense.
Habl&ra, habl&se, hablaria, Ishould, might, or would speak,
hablaras, hablises, hablarias, thou shouldst, mightst, etc.
hablara, hablase, hablaria, he should, might, etc.
hablaramos, hablasemos, hablariamos, we should, might, etc.
hablarais, hablaseis, hablariais, you should, might, etc.
hablaran, hablasen, hablarian, they should, might, etc
Future Tense,
Sihablare, If I should speak,
si hablares, if thou shouldst, etc.
si hablare, if he should speak.
Si habl&.remos. If we should speak,
si habl^reis, if you should, etc.
si habl§.ren, if they should, etc.
COMPOUND TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Compound of the Present.
H^ya habl§,do, etc. I may have spoken, etc.
Compound of the Imperfect.
Hubiera habl&.do, etc. \
Hubiese hablado, etc. > I should, might, or would have spoken, ete.
Habria habl&.do, etc. )
Compound of the Future.
Si hubiere hablado, etc. If I should have spoken, etc.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
H&bla t6. Speak thou.
h^ble el, let him speak.
hablemos nosotros, let us speak.
hablad vos6tros, speak you.
h&.blen ellos, let them speak.
Participle Active . . Habl&ndo, Speaking.
Compound ditto . . . Habiendo habl^ido. Having spoken.
2*articiple Fast . . . Habl^ido, Spoken.
SECOND CONJUGATION, TEMER, TO FEAR.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Simple. Compound.
Temer, To fear. | Haber temido, To have feared.
Temo,
temes,
teme.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I fear.
thou fearest.
he fears.
Tememos,
temeis,
temen,
"We feaT.
you fear,
they fear.
172
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
LECT. xxrw.
Temia,
temias,
temia.
Temi,
temiste,
temio.
Temere,
temeras,
temerk,
Past Imperfect Tense.
I feared. Temlamoa, We feared,
thcu fearedst. temiais, you feared,
he feared. temian, they feared.
Past Perfect Tense.
I feared,
thou fearedst.
he feared.
Temimos,
temisteis,
temieron,
Future Tense.
We feared.
you feared,
they feared.
I shall or will fear,
thou shalt fear,
he shall fear.
Temeremos, We shall, etc., fear.
temereis, you shall fear.
temerSin, they shall fear.
COMPOUND TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
Compound of the Present.
He temido, etc. I have feared, etc
Compound of the Past Imperfect.
Hahia temido, etc. I had feared, etc.
Compound of the Past Perfect.
Hube temido, etc. I had feared, etc.
Compound of the Future.
Habre temido, etc. I shall have feared , eto.
BUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Tema, I may fear. Temamos, We may fear,
temas thou mayst fear. tem^s, you may fear,
tema he may fear. teman, they may fear.
Imperfect Tense.
Temier.a, temiese, temeria, I should, might, etc., fear.
temieras, temieses, temerias, thou shouldst, etc., fear,
temiera, temiese, temeria, he should, might, etc., fear,
teraieramos, temiesemos, temeriamos, we should, might, etc., fear,
temierais, temieseis, temeriais, you should, might, etc., fear.
temieran, temiesea, temerian, they should, might, etc., fear.
LECT. XXIV.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
173
Future Tense,
Si temiere, If I should fear,
si temieres, if thou shouldst fear,
si temiere, if he should fear.
Si temieremos, If we should fear,
si temiereis, if you should fear,
si temieren, if they should fear.
COMPOUND TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Compound of the Present.
H&,ya temido, etc. I may have feared, etc
Compound of the Imperfect.
Hubiera temidO; etc. ]
Hubiese temido, etc. > I should, might, or would have feared, etc.
Habria temido, etc. )
Compound of the Future.
Si hubiere temido, etc. If I should have feared, etc.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Teme tti, Fear thou,
tema el, let him fear,
temamos nos6tros, let us fear,
temed vosotros, fear you.
teman ellos, let them fear.
Tarticiple Active . . Temiendo, Fearing.
Compound ditto . . . Habiendo temido, Having feared.
Participle Past . . . Temido, Feared.
THIRD CONJUGATION, SUFRIR, TO SUFFER.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Simple. Compound.
Sufrir, To suffer. | Haber sufrido, To have suffered
INDICATIVE MOOD,
Sfifro,
spires,
siifre.
Sufria,
sufrias,
sufria,
Present Tense*
I suffer,
thou sufferest,
he suffers.
Sufrimos, "We suffer,
sufris, you suffer,
stifren, they suffer.
Past Imperfect Tense.
I suffered,
thou sufferedst,
he suffered.
Sufriamos, "We suffered,
sufriais, you suffered,
sufrian, they suffered.
174
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
[lect.
XXIV.
Past
Sufri, I Buffered,
sufriste, thou sufl'eredst.
su£ri6, he suffered.
Sufrire,
sufriras,
Bufhr^i,
Perfect Tense.
Sufriraos,
sufristeis,
sufrieron,
Future Tense.
We suffered,
you suffered,
they suffered.
I shall or will suffer,
thou shalt suffer,
he shall suffer.
Sufriremos, We shall, etc., suffer,
sufrireis, you shall suffer,
sufririn, they shall suffer.
COMPOUND TENSES OP THE INDICATIVB MOOD.
Compound of the Present.
He sufrido, etc. I have suffered, etc
Compound of the Imperfect.
Habia sufrido, etc. I had suffered, eto.
Compound of the Perfect.
HUbe sufrido, etc I had suffered, eto.
Compound of the Future.
Habre sufrido, etc I shall have suffered, etc
SUBJUNCnVB MOOD.
Present Tense.
S6fra, I may suffer,
sutras, thou may est suffer.
Bufra, he may sufier.
Sufr&mos,
sufrais,
stafran,
"We may suffer,
you may suffer,
they may suffer.
Imperfect Tense.
sufriese, sufriria, I shoxild, might, etc., suffer,
sufrieses, sufririas, thou shouldst, mightst, eto.
sufriese, sufriria, he should, might, etc.
sufriesemos, sufririamos, we should, might, eto.
sufrieseis, sufririais, you should, might, etc.
sufriesen, sufririan, they should, might, etc
Future Tense.
Si sufriere, If I should suffer. i Si sufrieremos, If we should suffer,
si sufiieres, if thou shouldst suffer, si sufriereis, if you should suffer.
si sufriere, if he should suffer. si sufrieren, ifthey should suffer.
Sufriera,
Bufrieras,
Bufriera,
sufrieramos,
sufiierais,
Bufrieran,
LECT. XXIV.] CONJUGATION OF VEESa. 17§
COMPOUND TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Compound of the Present,
H&ya sufrido, etc. I may have suffered, etc.
Compound of the Imperfect,
Hubiera sufrido, etc. \
Hubiese sufrido, etc. > I should, might, or would have suffered, etc.
Habria sufrido, etc. )
Compound of the Future.
Si hubiere sufrido, etc. If I should have suffered, etc.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sufre tfi, Suffer thou.
sufra el, let him suffer.
Buframos nos6tro8, let us suffer.
sufrid vos6tros, suffer you.
sufran ellos, let them suffer.
Participle Active , . Sufriendo, Suffering.
Compound ditto , . . Habiendo sufrido. Having suffered.
Participle Fast . . . Sufrido, Suffered.
Note. — The following observations will assist the
learner in conjugating regular verbs :
Ist. The future indicative and the future subjunctive
of the three conjugations, and the first and third termina-
tions of the imperfect subjunctive of the first conjugation,
take in the whole of the infinitive.
2nd. The vowel with which the termination of the
first person of any tense of the subjunctive begins is con-
tinued throughout every person in the tense, in all the
three conjugations.
3rd. The present of the subjunctive is accented like
the present of the indicative in the three conjugations.
4th. The first and second terminations of the imper-
fect subjunctive, and the future of this mood, are accented
like the imperfect of the indicative in the three con-
jugations.
2. The annexed synopsis exhibits at one view all the
inflections in the regular verbs. The infinitives of
Spanish verbs are divided into the root and the termina-
176 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. [lECT. XXIY.
tion ; as, habl-ar, tem-er, sufr-ir : in which the roots are
habl, tern, sufr, and the terminations ar, er, ir. The
roots of regular verbs remain unalterable throughout
the whole conjugation ; except a few, which, in order to
retain the primitive sound of certain consonants, undergo
some sliglit alterations, as will be presently noticed; but
such verbs are not on that account considered irregular,
the alterations being merely orthoepical. See Par. 3.
The student, by way of exercise, may .apply the roots
of some of the adjoining verbs, which are all regular, to
the respective terminations in the following synopsis;
by which means he may very soon become familiar with
the conjugation of regular verbs.
Acabar, to finish; alabar, to praise; cortar, to cut;
ganary to gain; librar, to free; molestar^ to molest.
Acometer^ to attack; beber, to drink; comer, to eat;
ofemhr, to offend; prometer, to promise; vender, to sell.
Aturdir, to stun ; combatir, to combat ; omitir, to omit ;
partir, to depart ; permitirf to permit ; suprirnity to sup-
press.
A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE TERMINATIONS IN
REGULAR VERBS.
[Observe, that where the inflection is not marked with the accent,
the syllable immediately preceding it is the acute one.]
INFINITIVE MOOD.
1st Conjugation .... Habl- kt.
2nd ditto .... Tem- er.
3rd ditto .... Sufr- ir.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Ist Conj. Habl- o as a amos k\a an.
2nd . . . Tem- o es e emos eis en.
3rd . . . Sufr- o es e imos is en.
Past Imperfect Tense,
1. ... Habl- Siba abas aba abamos ibais aban.
2. ... Tem- ia ias ia iamos iais ian.
3. ... Sulr- ia ias ia iamos iais ian.
LECT. XXIV.] OONJTJQATION OP VERBS, 177
Past Perfect Tense.
Ist
2nd
3rd
Conj.
Habl-
Tem-
Sufr-
6 §iste 6 kmqs
I iste 16 imos
i iste 16 imos
Future Tense,
asteis
isteis
isteis
&jon.
ieron.
ieroa.
1.
2.
3.
Habl-
Tem-
Sufr-
are ar&a ar^ aremos
ere er&,s erk eremos
Ire ilka irk iremos
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense,
areis
ereis
irels
ar&n.
erSin.
Irkn.
1.
2.
3.
;;.
Habl-
Tem-
Sufr-
e es 6 emos
a as a kmos
a as a ^mos
6ia
kis
en.
an.
an.
1.
• • •
Habl-
Imperfect Tense.
I ^a ^ras kr& aramos
I ase ases §ise asemos
( aria arias aria ariamos
Srais
^seis
arias
aran.
&,sen.
arian.
iera ieras iera ieramos ierais ieraru
2. • • • Tern- ^ iese ieses lese iesemos ieseis iesen.
eria erias eria eriamos eriais erian.
iera ieras iera ieramos ierais ierac.
3. • • • Sufi:- \ iese ieses iese iesemos ieseis iesen.
iria irias iria iriamos Iriais Irian.
Future Tense,
1. ... Habl- &.re ares ^e kremos ^reis kren.
2. ... Tern- iere ieres iere ieremos iereis ieren.
3. ... Sufr- iere ieres iere ieremos iereis ierea
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
1. ... Habl- a e emos ad en
2. ... Tem- e a &mo3 ed an.
3. ... Sufr- e a §iuos id an.
FarticipU Active. JParHciple Fast,
1. Habl-ando. Habl-^do.
2. Tem-iendo. Tem-ido.
3. Sufr-iendo. Sufr-ido.
3. It has just been noticed in Par. 2, that there are a
few regular verbs that undergo some slight orthoepical
alterations, which are made in order to preserre,
I 5
178 OONJTJGATION OF VERBS. [lECT. XXIV.
throughout the whole of their conjugations, the hard or
soft sound which certain consonants have in the infinitive,
and are liable to change their primitive sound when fol-
lowed by certain vowels. The alterations that take
place are the following :
C before e changes into qu, when in the infinitive it has
the sound of k; as, arrancdr, to pluck, arranquemoSy
arrdnquen, etc. It changes into z, when in the infinitive
it has the soft sound ; as, veticery to conquer, venzo^ ven-
zdmos, etc.
Gj having in the infinitive the hard sound, requires u
between it and the e following it ; as vengdr, to revenge,
venguenios, vcngruen, etc.
G- before o or a changes into 7, when in the infinitive
it has the guttural sound ; as coger, to catch, cojOf cdjan,
etc.
Gu drop the u whenever 0 or a immediately follows ;
as distmijOj distinga, etc.
Qu change into c when the sound of the hard c is
required to be preserved ; as delinquiry to transgress,
deiincOy delincan, etc.
Note. — Yerbs of the second and third conjugations,
having their roots terminating in a vowel, would, in some
tenses, according to the regular conjugation of verbs,
change the e of their termination into i; thus, leer^ to
read, would change into leio^ leieray etc.; but in such cases
a 7/ should be substituted for the i; thus, %o, leyera, etc.
(This, however, does not happen when the stress falls on
the I, and therefore the rule does not apply to the imper-
fect of the indicative, as leta^ leias, etc.) This rule ex-
tends even to the regular tenses of irregular verbs.
Observe, also, that verbs of the second or third conju-
gation, having either of the liquid letters // or ?1 in their
root, as bullir, to boil, tafier, to play on a musical instru-
ment, drop the t of the termination in the third person
singular and plural of the perfect indicative ; throughout
the terminations ra and se of the imperfect subjunctive,
and future of the same mood ; and in the participle active ;
as, perfect indicative tajid, tane'ron; build, htdleron: —
imperfect subjunctive, tanera, etc., taiiese, etc. ; hullera,
etc., buUe'se, etc. : — future subjunctive, tanere^ etc. ;
bullere, etc. : — participle active, taiiendo, bullendo.
LEOT. XXIV.] CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 179
EXERCISE ON THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS.
The boys run. She sings. The ladies are walking
correr cantar pasear
He is eating it. They are selling them. The English
comer vender
send their ships to all parts of the world. He writes
enviar buque escribir
much. He plays on the flute. I do think so. He does
tocar * flauta creer
not dine early, but she does. You do not observe
comer temprano pero observar
it, but I do. The pagans sacrificed victims to their
pagano sacrificar victima
gods. Solon was one of the seven sages of Greece, and
dies sabio Grecia
learnt at Athens. Plato studied under Socrates,
aprender Platen estudiar bajo de Socrates
after whose death he began his travels through Greece :
muerte empezar viage por
he afterwards went to Egypt, where, at that period,
despues pasar Egipto donde en periodo
flourished Theodorus. I was breakfasting when you
florecer Teodoro almorzar
arrived. She consulted him, and so did I. He
llegar consultar tambien
did not relieve them, but she did. I shall speak to
socorrer pero
him to-morrow. He shall remain here if he likes. I
quedar aqui le gusta
will surmount every difficulty. I will surprise them,
veneer dificultad sorprender
Will he sacrifice his interests in this manner ? Shall we
en manera
study our lesson ? He will remain, and [there is no]
estudiar no hay
180 CONJUGATION OF VEEBS. [lECT. XXIV.
remedy. You shall not take it. We shall free them,
remedio tomar librar
and nothing shall prevent us. He will not listen, but
nada impedir escuchar
she will. We shall succeed; shall we not? They have
' lograr
paid me. They had not reflected. I have not
pagar reflexionar
considered it. He had concluded his discourse when
considerar concluir discurso cuando
we entered. I had scarcely finished when he began,
entrar ap^nas acabar empezar
I imagine he may have the same views. Perhaps
imaginar mismo mira [puede que]
he may reward her. I fear he may not answer
recompensar responder
me. Even though he should believe it. Although he
aun cuando creer aunque
might read much, he would learn but little. If he
leer aprender *
should pass [by this way] I would caU him. You may
por aqui
omit what you please. I can work now, but I could
omitir gustar trabajar
not then. He would watch the whole night. They
entonces velar noche
should [take care of] her. You should promise, and so
cuidar prometer
should she. He might permit me ; might he not ? I
permitir
expect to depart to-morrow. I resolved not to mention
partir resolver mencionar
it. Speak thou to him. Let them promise me. Suppress
suprimir
your tears. Let him not sell them. Do ye not offend
Idfrriina ofender
LECT. XXIV.] OONJUQATION OF VERBS. 181
ANCIENT MANNER OF FORMING SOME OF THE TENSES
OF SPANISH REGULAR VERBS.
4. As in reading the works of ancient authors the
student will find some parts of the verb written dif-
ferently from what they are now, it has been deemed
proper to point out what these variations consist in.
They are as follow.
The future indicative was anciently formed of two
words — namely, the infinitive of the verb denoting the
action, followed by some inflection of the auxiliary haher.
This form of the verb occurred especially when it was
followed by a governed pronoun : Ex :
Mientras que yo pueda, Whilst I can, / m/Z c?^ so.
facerlo he asi. — (Cronica
General.)
Lo que oistes en poridad What you heard in private
predicarlo he'des (or ha- you will proclaim on the
bedes) sobrelostejados. — roofs.
(Leyes de las Partidas.)
In these examples facerlo he, and predicarlo he'des, are
equivalent to lo hare, and lo predicareis.
In a like manner the imperfect subjunctive in the
termination ria, was used anciently as a compound verb,
especially when it was followed by a governed pronoun.
Thus, in the Cronicas Generales are frequently seen
the expressions tornarse hia, or tornarseia, pecharme hia,
or pecharmeza, for se tornaria, he would turn ; and me
pecharia, he would pay me.
The verb in the imperfect subjunctive, with the ter-
mination ra, was also employed anciently (and is some-
times now, in poetry), instead of the compound of the
past imperfect of the indicative : Ex.
El caballero a quien el rey The gentleman to whom
diera el cabaUo. the king had given the
El rey mando entonces que horse.
sopieran cuantos hom- The king then ordered that
hTQsmorieran. — (Cronica they should know how
General.) many men had died.
In which examples diera, and morieran, are equivalent
to habia dado.
182
CJONJTTGATION OF TERES. [l-ECT. XXIV.
Besides which, the second person plural in every
tense of th e indicative and subj unctive moods was formerly
written with Je, where i is now used, as seen in the
following list : —
First Conjugation.
Modern.
Ancient.
Indic.
Pres.
AmiJds.
Amades.
Imperf.
amabain.
amubadea.
Ferf.
amasteis.
amaatedea.
Future.
amareis.
amaredea.
Subj.
Frea.
ameis.
amedes.
1 amiraia.
flmdrnflos.
Imperf.
} amaseis.
amaaedea.
( amaraiais.
amanadea.
Future.
amareis.
amkredes.
Second Conjtigation.
Indic.
Free.
Bebeis.
beb^dea.
Imperf.
bebiais.
bediadea.
Ferf.
bebisteis.
bebistedes.
Future.
bebereis.
beberedea.
Subj.
Free.
bebkis.
bebddea.
{ bebierais.
bebieradea.
Imperf
1 bebieseis.
bebiesedea.
( beberiais.
beberiades.
Future.
bebiereia.
bebieredea.
ITiird Conjugation
Indic.
Free.
Parti3.
Partides.
Imperf
partiais.
partiadea.
Ferf
partisteia.
partistedea.
Future.
partireia.
partiredea.
Subj.
Fres.
partais.
partades.
( pailierais.
particradea.
Imperf
< partieseis.
partiesedea.
( partiriais.
partiriadea.
Future.
partiereis.
partieredes.
The d used also to be omitted in the second person
plural of the imperative ; thus, mird, bebe\ suU, instead
of mirdd, hebed, subid. And when the pronouns, le, la, lo,
were affixed to the second person plural of the imperative,
the I used to be put before the d ; thus, mirdlde, bebe'lda,
sub'ildo, instead of mirddle, bebedla, subidlo. The i was
frequently omitted in the second person plural of the
perfect indicative ; thus, amdstes, vendistesj partistes,
LEOT. XXIV.] CONJUGATION 01» VERBS. 183
instead of amdsteis, vendisteiSy partisteis. And the final
r of the infinitive was often changed into Z, when followed
by the pronouns le, la, lo; thus, tomdlle, comella, parttllOf
instead of tomdrle, comerta, parttrlo.
(For the difference in spelling in ancient irregular
verbs, see Lect. 25, Par. 3.)
FORMATION OF REFLECTIVE VERBS.
5. These are formed in Spanish by prefixing the
personal pronouns of the objective case to each cor-
responding person of the verb, in every tense of the
indicative and subjunctive moods, in the following
manner ; —
Indicative Present.
Me ^0, I love myself.
te km&s, thou lovest thyself.
se ^a, he loves himself.
Nos am^mos, "We love OTirselves.
OS am&is, you love yourselves,
se aman, they love themselves.
And so on in all the other tenses. In the Infinitive, the
participle active, and the imperative, the pronouns are
subjoined to the verb ; and obser-ve that the final letter
of the first and second persons plural of the imperative is
dropped when nos and os are affixed to them respectively:
Ex.
infinitive.
Part. Active.
Am arse,
am§,ndose,
/ amate t6,
\ kmese el,
To love oneself,
loving oneself,
love thou thyself,
let him love himself.
mperative.
< amemonos nosotros,
let us love ourselves.
1 am&.08 vosotros,
V^imenseellos,
love you yourselves, etc.
let them love themselves, etc.
It is optional, for the sake of energy, etc., to place
the reflective pronoun after the verb in the first and
third persons singular, and third plural of the tenses of
the indicative.
Note. — When the verb denotes a reciprocity of action
between two or more individuals, it is formed in Spanish
in the same manner as the plural of reflective verbs ; as,
Nos amamos — We love one another. Os enganasteis —
You deceived each other. Se perderdn — They will lose
one another.
184 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. [lECT. XXIV.
FORMATION OF PASSIVE VERBS.
6. Passive verbs are formed in Spanish, by adding the
past participle of the verb to be used passively to the
verb ser^ throughout every mood and tense ; and observe
that the participle passive must agree in number and
gender with the nominative of the verb : Ex.
Jnjinitive. Ser amado, To be loved.
Fart. Active. siendo amado, being loved.
I Sing. Mas. amido. \
Participle 1 Plur. Mas. amados, \ j ,
Passive. S Sing. Fern, arafida. I -^^^®*^'
( Plur. Fern, amkdas. )
Indicative Present.
86y amado, I am loved.
ere8 amido, thou art loved,
es amado, he is loved.
And so on throughout the verb.
S6rao8 amidos, "We are loved.
s6i8 amados, you are loved.
son amados, they are loved.
OBSERVATION ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. .
7. A reflective verb in the third person singular op
plural in any of the moods and tenses, is often employed
in Spanish when the meaning intended to be conveyed
by it is passive : for instance, Ten men were employed,
is frequently translated, Se emplearon diez homhres,
instead of, Diez homhres fueron empleados : and, The
necessary precautions have been taken, might be translated,
Se han tornado las precauciones necesarias, as well as,
Las precauciones necesarias han sido tornados. Never-
theless, the learner should be very cautious how he
employs this manner of expressing the passive voice, for
fear of rendering his sentences ambiguous. We see that
the first example, Se emplearon diez hombres, might be
either taken for Ten men were employed, or Ten men
employed themselves. In the second example, however,
no ambiguity can arise from employing the verb in either
manner, since, as it is impossible for the precautions to
take themselves, we must understand that the sense
intended to be conveyed is, that the precautions were
taken.
LECT. XXIV.] 0O2?JT?aAjrI0N OF TERES.
185
However, as this manner of forming the passive voice
with the pronoun se is so frequently made use of in
Spanish, the pupil is recommended to make himself as
familiar as possible with this peculiarity, by directing
his attention to it while reading. Observe the following
examples : —
Maiiana se venderd la casa. The house will be sold to-
morrow.
The boys are expected to-
night.
What is to be done f
It cannot be helped.
In his glorious reign (Fer-
dinand V.'s) all the arts
of peace and war were
practised, and the chances
of both adverse and pros-
perous fortune were wit-
nessed.
The Castilian language
owed much to this Prince
(Alphonsus X.) ; for be-
sides having enriched it
with his pen, he com-
manded that it should be
used in all the royal
orders and immunities,
and in all public docu-
ments, which were for-
merly written in Latin.
In translating a complete passive sentence, such as
Wisdom is praised by all, if it be done with the verb ser,
the ablative todos (all) may be governed by the preposi-
tion de or por ; but if it be construed with the pronoun
se, then the ablative can only be governed by por : Ex.
La sahiduria es alabada de, or por todos : La sabiduria se
alaba por todos. — Grammab of the Academy.
Note. — The pronoun se, with the third person singular
of the active voice, is employed in Spanish in all vague
and general reports : Ex,
Los muchachos se esperan
esta noche.
Que se ha de hacer ?
No se puede remediar.
En su glorioso reinado se
ejercitaron to das las artes
de la paz y de la guerra,
y se vieron los accidentes
de ambas fortunas, pros-
pera y adversa. — (Saa-
VEDRA Fajardo — Em-
presas Poh'ticas.)
Debio mucho a este Prin-
cipe la lengua Caste-
liana ; pues ademas de
haberla ilustrado con la
pluma, mando se usas» en
todos los decretos y pri-
vilegios reales, y en las
escrituras piiblicas, que
dntes se escribian en Latin.
— (T. Iriarte — Hist, de
Espaiia.)
1S6 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. [lECT. XXIV.
Se dice que, etc. They say, or it is said that,
etc.
Se cree que la noticia es It is believed that the news
verdadera. is true.
Se habla de guerra. War is spoken of.
Se dice que es grande ora- He is said to be a great
dor. orator.
The active voice alone, without the pronoun se, may
also be employed with the like expressions, in the fol-
lowing manner :
Dicen que, etc. They say that, etc.
Creen que la noticia es ver- They believe that the news
dadera. is true.
Hahlan de guerra. They speak of war,
Dicen que es grande ora- They say he is a great
dor. orator.
The pronoun se, with a verb in the third person, is
also sometimes used as an equivalent for one : Ex. Se ne-
cesita descanso despues del trabajo — One requires rest after
labour.
The same pronoun is sometimes also used as occupying
the place of some third person before a pronoun in the
dative or accusative case ; as, Se me pregunta si, etc. —
I am asked if, etc. Se le busca a Vmd. — You are en-
quired for. Se me ha pasado de la memoria — It has
escaped my memory.
EXERCISE ON REFLECTIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS.
He gives himself up to melancholy. They accuse
abandonarse melancolia acusarse
themselves of the crime. You will hurt yourself,
delito lastimarse
Do not trouble yourself. He freed himself from the
molestarse librarse
enemy. They had wounded one another. They have
enemigo herirse
always praised each other. If they should offend
siempre alabarse ofenderse
LECT. XXIV.] VEEBS USEB NEGATIVELY. 187
one another. Let us seat ourselves down liere.
sentarse •
Comfort yourselves, my children. She is esteemed by
consolarse estimar de
her acquaintances. He was protected by them. They
conocido. proteger
were attacked by the enemy. That they may be declared
atacar declarar
innocent. That I might be elected by the committee,
inocente elegir comitiva
Let us be convinced of the truth. To be accused
convencer acusar
[it is sufficient] to be suspected. They were employed,
basta sospechar emplear
The street has been paved. Having been captured,
calle empedrar apresar
The houses were thrown down. A new comedy will be
derribar * comedia
performed to-morrow. Some treaty of commerce has
representar tratado comercio
been spoken of. It is believed to be true. He is said
verdad
to be a great musician,
miisico.
VERBS USED NEGATIVELY.
8. In Spanish the negative no invariably precedes the
verb, or its auxiliary ; and should there be a pronoun of
the dative or accusative case before the verb, the negative
precedes both. (Observe that the auxiliary do^ of nega-
tive and interrogative sentences, is not translated) : Ex.
No puedo venir. I cannot come.
No la veo. I do not see her.
No le ha hablado. He has not spoken to him.
If the nominative is expressed, it may beplaced either
before the negative particle, or after the verb ; thus : Yo
no puedo venir ; or, no puedo yo venir; or, no puedo venir
yo ; but never no yo puedo venir.
188 VERBS TTSED INTERIIOGATIYELY. [lECT. XXIV.
Two negatives do not destroy each other in Spanish as
they do in English ; on the contrary, they add strength
to one another : Ex.
No ten go nada que dar d I have nothing to give you.
Ymd.
No lo sabe nadie. Nobody knows it.
No lo he visto jamas. I have never seen it.
These phrases, nevertheless, may, with equal pro-
priety, though, perhaps, with less energy, be expressed
thus : Nada tengo que dar a Vmd. ; Nadie lo sabe ; Jamas
lo he visto. The no can never be used when any other
negative precedes the verb.
There are some instances, however, in which one ne-
gative naturally destroys the other in Spanish as well as
in English ; thus, No deseo verla nunca, means, I never
wish to see her ; but No deseo nunca verla, means, I do
not desire never to see her ; signifying, by the latter ex-
pression, a wish to see her sometimes. And No pretendo
sino que me paguCf denotes, I only pretend that he should
pay me.
The following sentence of Jovelulnos, in his Memoria
a sus Compatriotas, ** No podian no ser complices en la
usurpacion de la autoridad,'^ means, They could not do less
than connive at the usurpation of the authority.
In many instances the negative no is seen used in
Spanish by way of pleonasm when nothing of a negative
sense exists ; thus. El es mas rico que no ella — He is richer
than she. Temia no entrara y me hallaria durmiendo — I
feared he might come in and find me asleep. For poco
no me caigo — I was near falling. But in these and the
like phrases, the no had better be omitted.
And, on the contrary, in phrases where any portion
of time is qualified by the word todo, the negative is
frequently omitted, when the sense required it to be ex-
pressed, as, En toda la noche he podido dormir — I have
not been able to sleep the whole night.
VERBS USED INTERROGATIVELY.
9. "With regard to the order of construction preserved
in interrogative sentences, no precise rule can be given ;
it is the modulation of the voice that mostly determines,
LEOT. XXrV.] VERBS USED INTERROGATIVELY. 189
in speaking, when the verb is used interrogatively ; and
in writing, the note of interrogation. However, in the
natural order, the nominative, in interrogative sentences,
when expressed, is generally placed after the verb (though
not always immediately after it, unless it be a pronoun);
but this order may, for energy or elegance, be inverted.
If the interrogative sentence has a negative also, the
negative is still always put before the verb : Ex.
^ Sabe el que estoy aqui ? Does he know that I am
here?
Donde se fueron vuestras "Whither ar*? all your former
antiguas . . . ? joys gone . . . . ?
I Este es el rostro que yo vi Is this the countenance that
traspasado. . . . ? (Fr. I saw afflicted . . . . ?
Luis DE Granada.)
^No te lastiman mas los Do not the cries of those
lamentos de todos esos unhappy creatures any
infelices ?— (Feijoo. ) longer move thee to pity?
EXERCISE ON NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE VERBS.
They are not the same. I have not heard it. She
mismo oir
was not there. They had no arms. I do not aspire to
arma aspirar
so much. They could not defend him. We should not
defender
desire what is not ours. They should not believe it. I am
desear
not engaged. They were not condemned. You shall
comprometer condenar
not be insulted. That they may not be received. I do not
insultar
flatter myself. They do not trouble themselves. I never
lisongear incomodar jamas
knew it. I will never believe it. They have no patience,
saber paciencia
He knew nobody. Do not sell him anything. Do I
conucer vender
190 ACCENTUATION OF VERBS. [LECT. XXIV.
answer well ? Shall we arrive to-day ? Would he lend
responder prestar
it to me ? Were they increased ? Have they confirmed it?
aumentar confirmar
Has he been rewarded? Would they spare themselves that
premiar ahorrar
trouble ? Have they procured nothing ? Will they not
procurar
pretend it? Would they not have reported him?
pretender reportar
Will they not be published ?
publicar
OBSERVATIONS ON THE ACCENTX7ATI0N OF VERBS.
10. In all the foregoing conjugations of verbs an
accent has been placed over the syllable requiring the
stress of voice, in order to assist the learner. But verbs
are not always found written with the accent for this
purpose. The following rules, which are applicable to all
regular verbs, will point out where the stress is required
in them. Many of the irregular verbs also are accented
in the same manner ; but as no general rule can be given
for the accentuation of these, the student will be guided
by the accent laid on the syllable requiring the stress, in
their respective conjugations.
Indic. — Present. — In this tense the stress is laid on
the last syllable but one, in every person except the
second plural, which is acute on the last.
Imperfect. — Here the acute syllable is the last but
one in every person except the first plural, which has
the stress on the last syllable but two.
Fe7]fect. — The first and third persons singular are
acute in this tense on the last syllable, and all the rest
on the last but one.
Future. — The last syllable of this tense is acute in
every person except the first plural, which has the stress
upon the last but one.
Sub. — Present. — The same syllables are acute in this
tense as in the present indicative.
LECT. XXIV.] ACCENTTTATION OF VERBS. 191
Imperfect and future. — These two tenses have the
same syllables acute as those in the imperfect indicative.
Imperat. — Here the second person plural is acute on
the last syllable, and the rest are so on the last but one.
The Infinitive is always acute on the last syllable,
and the Participles on the last but one.
Eemark. — Should the accent fall upon a syllable
having the diphthong ie, or io, the latter of the two vowels
has the stress ; as, vendiendo, unio.
If the accented syllable contains a combination of
the vowels ia or iai^ the stress falls on the first vowel ;
as, vendka, temiais.
When the syllable contains the diphthong et, the
stress falls on the e ; as, comprare'is, vendereis.
The foregoing observations point out what particular
syllable of the verb requires the stress of voice; but it is
not every syllable on which the stress falls that is written
with the accent* The accent is required only when the
verb is spelled alike in more than one tense : and its use
then is to distinguish the one from the other, as follows:
Indic. — Perfect. — Here the accent is employed on the
first and third persons singular, and first person plural ;
as, hable'f hallo, habldmos, to distinguish them from the
following, which are spelled like them — viz., hable, first
and third persons singular, present subjunctive; hablo,
hablamos, first person singular, and first person plural,
present indicative.
Future. — Every person in this tense is accented ; as,
Jiablare, hablards, hablardt hablare'mos, hahlareis, hablardn^
to distinguish them from the following, — viz., hablara,
hablaras, hablaran,^r8t, second, and third persons singular,
and third person ■plu.raljimperfect subjunctive; and hablare,
hablaremos, hablareis, first or third persons singular, and
first and second persons plural, future subjunctive.
Some writers employ the accent on the first and second
persons plural of the imperfect indicative, and the imper-
fect and future subjunctive, but its employment there
appears of no utility, and is consequently not generally
practised. The employment of the accent is therefore now
generally confined to the following: — viz., the first and
third persons singular, and first person plural of the perjeci
indicative, and every person of the future indicative.
192
IRUEGTII-AIl VEEBS.
[lECT. XXV.
If one or more pronouns of the dative or accusative
case be affixed to an unaccented person of a verb, tli-
syllable on which the stress falls should be marked with
the accent ; as, from pide^ ptdalOf pidaselo ; from recverde,
recuerdemef recuerdemelo.
LECTURE XXV.
CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
1 . The irregularity in these verbs is sometimes found
to be in the root, at others in the termination, and occa-
fiionally in both. In the following conjugations, those
moods, tenses, and persons only that have any irregularity
in them are exhibited ; the rest being omitted, that the
learner may see at one view where the irregularity lies.
Observe that all irregular compound and reflective verbs
are conjugated like the simple ones from which they are
formed.
IRREGUIiAB VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION.
ACERTAR, TO GUESS, TO HIT A MARK, TO ASCERTAIN.
The irregularity of this verb is in the root, and con-
sists in its admitting an i before the e, in the three
persons singular and the third person plural of the
present indicative and present subjunctive, and the
second and third persons singular and third person
plural of the imperative : Ex.
Indicative Present,
Acierto, aciertas, acierta,
Subjunctive Present,
Acierte, aciertes, acierte,
acierta.
Impei'ative,
acierte,
aciertan.
acierten.
acierten.
LECT. XXV,]
IREEGULAB VERBS.
193
VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE ACERTAR.
Acrecentar, adestrar, alentar, apacentar, apretar, arrendar, asentar,
asestar, aterrar, atestar, atravesar, aventar, Bregar, Calentar, cegar,
cerrar, cimenar, comenzar, concertar, confesar, Decentar, derrengar,
dpsertar,* desmembrar, despertar, despemar, desterrar, dezmar, Ein-
pedrar, empezar, encomendar, encubertar, enmendar, ensangrentar,
enterrar, errar,t escarmentar, estregar, Fregar, Grobemar, Herrar,
helar, Infernar, invernar, Manifestar,* mentar, merendar, Negar,
nevar, Pensar, plegar, Quebrar, Regar, reventar, Segar, sembrar,
sentar, serrar, sosegar, Temblar, tentar, tropezar.
See tlie Englisli translation of these and the following
verbs in the alphabetical list of all the Spanish irregular
verbs, at the end of these conjugations.
ACORDAR, TO AGREE.
This verb changes the o of the root into ue, in the
same moods, tenses, and persons as are irregular in the
verb acertar : Ex.
Indicative Present,
Acuerdo, acuerdas, acuerda, — acuerdan.
Subjunctive Present,
Acuerda, acuerdes, acuerde, ecuerden.
Imperative.
acuerda, acuerde, — — acu^rden.
VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE ACORDAR.
Acostar, agorar, almorzar, amolar, aporcar, aportar, apostar, apro-
bar, asolar, asoldar, avergonzar, Colar, colgar, consolar, coatar,
costar, Descollar, degollar, demostrar, desfogar, deso.lar, desovar,
Eraporcar, encontrar, encordar, enrodar, engrosar, For/ar, Holgar,
hollar, Mostrar, Poblar, probar, Regoldar, renovar, rcscontrar,
resollar, rodar, rogar, Solar, soldar, soitar,J sonar, sonar, Tostar,
trocar, tronar. Volar, volcar.
• Manifestar and desertar have regular and irregular past par-
ticiples ; the latter are desierto and manifiesto.
t In this verb a y is substituted for the t which precedes the e,
in the irregular tenses ; thus, yerro, yerre^ etc.
i Soltar has a regular and an irregular past participle; the
latter is melto.
194 rBREGTTLAR VERBa, [lECJT. XXT,
ANDAR, TO WALK, TO Oa
Indicative Perfect.
Andtive, anduviste, andtivo, anduvimos, anduvtsteis, anduvifircHL
Subjunctive Imperfect.
Anduvi^ra, — vi^ras, — viera, — vieramos, — vi^raia, — vifepan.
Auduviese, — viesee, — yiese, — vi^semos, — vi^seiB, — ^vidsen.
Future*
Anduvifire, — ^vifiree, — vi^re, — ^vi^remos, — vi^reis, — viSran.
Note. — In almost all the irregular verbs, the terminft-
ticns ra and se of the imperfect subjunctive, and the
future of the same tense are formed from the perfect
indicative. See also note in page 175.
DARt TO GIVE.
Indicative Present,
Doy. — — — — —
Perfect.
Di, dlste, dio, dimos, disteis, di^ron.
Subjunctive Imperfect
Bi^ra, diSras, diera, dieramos, di^rais, di^ran,
Diese, dieses, diese^ diesemos, dieseis, di^sen.
Future,
Di6re, di^res, di^re, dieremos, di^reis, di^ren.
ESTAR, TO BE.
See this verb conjugated, page 162. With the ex-
ception of the first person singular present indicative,
which admits of a final y, estar has the same irregulari-
ties as andar.
JUQAR, TO PLAY.
This verb admits an e after the radical «, in the fbt
lovKng tenses and persons : —
Indicative Present,
Juigo, juegas, ju6ga, ^— {a^gasu
0)CT. ZXV.} UtREGULAIt VESBa 195
Subjunctive PreaenL
Ju^gue, Ju^gues, juegue, — — Jngpfuen.
Imperative,
JTi^ga, ju6gue, — — ju^guen.
EBREQTJLAR VERBS OF THE SECOND OONJUGATION,
ABORREGER, TO HATE.
The irregularity of this verb, and of those terminating
in acer^ ecer, and ocer^ consists in admitting a z before tlie
e in the root, whenever the c is followed by a or o ; Ex.
Indicative Present,
Aborr6zcO| — — — — —
Subjunctive Present.
Aboocrdzca, — r6zcas, — rezca, — rezckmos, — rezc&is, — r^zean.
Imperative,
— • — r6zca, — rezc§unos, — — rezcan.
HACER, TO DO, TO MAKE.
This verb is an exception from the foregoing rule.
Indicative Present,
H&go, —
Perfect,
Hioe, kiciste, hieo, hicimos, hicistds, hici^roQ.
Future.
Har§, hax&s, har^i, har^mos, har^is, har&u.
Subjunctive Present.
H6ga, hfigas, haga, hag^os, hag^ h&gan.
Imperfect.
Hici^ra, hicicras, hiciera, hicieramos, hici^r^, hicierin.
Hiciese, hioiestss, hiciese, hiciesetiiOS, hicieseis, hici^sea.
Haiia, harias, haria, hariamos, hariaia, harian.
196 lEBEGTTLAB VEEB8. [lECT. XXV.
Future.
Hiri^ro, liici&es, biciSre, hicieremos, hiciereia, liici^ren.
Imperative.
liaSy li&ga> hag&.moB, — — h&gan.
Participle past. Hecho.
COCER, TO BAKE, TO BOIL, TO COOK.
Of those verbs ending in ocer, just mentioned, we mnst
also except cocer^ to bake, etc., eacocer, to smart, and
recocer^ to reboil. These do not admit the z before c,
but change the o of the root into ue, in the same moods,
tenses, and persons as are irregular in absorver, the next
in conjugation. They likewise change the c of the root
into z before o and o, in order to preserve the soft sound
which the c has in the infinitive : Ex.
Indicative Present.
Cuezo, cu6ce8, cuece, —^ eu6cen.
Subjunctive Present.
Cueza, cu^zas, cueza, cozatnoe, cozais, cuezan.
Imperative,
cu^ce, cueza, cozamos, ^— cuezan.
Cocer has a regular and an irregular past participle ;
the latter is cocho,
VERBS COXJUGATED LIKE ABORRECEB.
Abastecer, acaecer, acontecer, adolecer, adormecer, agradecer,
amanecer, anochecer, aparecer, apetecer, Canecer, carecer, conocer,
f.onvalecer, crecer, Embravecer, emplumecer, empobrecer, encalle-
•;er, encalvecer, encarecer, encrudecer, encruelecer, endentecer, en-
durecer, enflaquecer, engrandecer, enloquecer, enmohecer, enmudecer,
ennoblecer, enrarecer, enriquecer, ensoberbecer, entallecer, enterne-
cer, entorpecer, entullecer, entumecer, entristecer, envejecer, en-
verdecer, escamecer, esclarecer, establecer, estremecer, Fallecer,
favorecer,* fenecer, fortalecer, Guarnecer, Humedecer, Merecer,
Nacer, negrecer, Obedecer, obscurecer, ofrecer, Pacer, padecer, pare-
cer, perecer, pertenecer, placer, prevalecer, Remanecer, restabler-er.
♦ Favorecer has a regidar and an irregular past participle ; the
latter is favorilo.
LEOT. ZXy.3
IfiEEGULAR VERBS.
197
ABSORVER, TO ABSORB.
Indicative Present,
Absu6nrOy absu^rves, absuerve, - absuerven.
Subjunctive Present
Absuerva, absuervas, absusrva, absuerran.
Imperative.
absuerve, absuerva, — — .. absuervan.
Ahsorver lias a regular and an irregular past parti-
ciple ; tke latter is absorto.
VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE ABSORVER.
Absolver,* Disolver,* doler, Llover, Moler, morder, mover,
01er,t Resolver,* Torcer,* Volver.*
ASCENDER, TO ASCEND.
This verb takes an i before the e of the root, in the
same moods, tenses, and persons as are irreguLir in
acertar ; but its conjugation is here exhibited from its
being of a different termination : Ex.
Indicative Present,
Asci^ndo, asci^ndes, asciende, *— — ascienden.
Subjunctive Present.
Ascienda, asciendas, ascienda, — — asciendan.
Imperative,
asciende, . ascienda, •— — asciendan.
VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE ASCENDER.
Atender,]: Cemer, Defender, descender, Enoender, entender,
Heder, bender, Perder, Tender, Verter.
* Tbe past participles of absolver, disolver, resolver, and volve^,
are absuelto, disuelto, resue'lto, and vuelto : the rest of this list have
regular past participles ; and torcer, in addition to its regiilar past
participle, has an irregular one, namely, tuerto.
t The irregular persons of this verb must be written with an A ,•
as, huelo, huela, etc.
X Atender has a regular and an irregular past participle ; the
latter is atento.
198
lEREQULAIl VERBS.
^LSCT* zxy.
CABBJR, TO BE CONTAINED, or TO BE CAPABLE OP
BEING CONTAINED.*
Indicative Present
Qu6po, — •
C6pe, cuplate,
Cabi6, cabr&8,
Qu6pa, quSpas,
cabr&n.
qu^pan.
Perfect.
ctipo, cuplmoa, ouplateis, cnpl6ron
Future.
cabr^ cabremos, cabrSis,
Subjunctive Present.
qu6pa, quepamos, quep&is,
Imperfect.
Ciipi^ra, cupi^ras, cupi^ra, cupieramos, cupi^raia, cupieran.
Cupiese, cupi^ses, cupiese, cupiesemos, cupieseis, cupiesen.
Cabria, cabrias, oabrla, oabriamos, cabriais, cabrian.
Futitre.
Uapi6re, cupi^res, cupi^re, cupi6remo8, cupi^reis, cupifiren.
Imperative.
— — qu6pa, quep^os, — qu^pan.
CAER, TO PALL.
This verb admits ig after the a in the root, when the
termination begins with a or o ; Ex.
Indicative Present,
Caigo, — —
Subjunctive Present.
Geiga, c&lgas, caiga, caig&mos, caig&ia,
Imperative,
^— c&iga, caig&mos, —
See also Note^ Par. 3, Lect. 24.
EABERy TO HAVE.
See this verb conjugated, page 157.
cfiigan.
origan.
* See the different manners of employing this verb, Lbct. 28,
Pou 9.
LBOT. XZV.] XBBEGTTLAB YEEBS. 199
PODER, TO BE ABLE.
Indicative Present.
Pa6dO) pu^des, pu6de, — paSdea.
Perfect.
P6de, pudiste, p6do, pudimos, pudisteis, pudieivn.
Future,
Podr6, Dodr&fl, podra, podr^mos, podr6is, podr&n.
Subjunctive Present.
Pueda, puedaa, pueda, — — — — pu6dan.
Imperfect.
Padiera, pudieras, pudiera, pudieramos, pudierais, pudieran.
Pudiese, pudieses, pudiese, pudiesemos, pudieseis, pudiesen.
Podria, podriaa, podria, podriamos, podriais, podrian.
Future.
Pudiere, pudieres, pudiere, pudieremos, pudilreis, pudieren.
(No Imperative.)
Farticipk Active. Pudiendo.
PONER, TO PUT, TO PLACE.
Indicative Present.
Perfect,
PUsOy puslste, ptiSQ^ pusimos, puMsteifl, pusieion.
Future.
Pondr6, pondr^, pondr^, pondremos, pondr6ifl, pondrkn.
Subjunctive Present.
P6nga, p6nga8, p6nga, pong^os, pong&ia, p6ngan.
Imperfect,
Puai^ra, pusi^ras, pusi^ra, pusieramos, pusierais, pusieran.
Pxisiese, pusieses, pusiese, pusiesemoa, pusieseis, pusiesen.
Poudria, pondrias, pondria, pondriamos, pondrlais, pondrian.
200 ntREQULAR VERBS. [tEOT. XXV.
Future.
Pusi6re, pnsi^res, puis^re, pusieremos, pusi^reiB. pud^ien.
Imperative.
poift^ p6nga, pongamos, -^— p6ngan.
Participle Fast. Pu^sto.
QUERER, TO WISH, TO BE WILLING, TO LOVE.
Indicative Present.
Qui^ro, quieres, quiere, — — qui^ren.
Perfect.
Quiee, quisiate, quiso, quisimos, quisisteis, quisi^ron.
Future.
Querre, querr&s, querr&, querremos, querr6is, querr&tL
Subjunctive Present,
Quiera, quieraa, quiera, qui^ran.
Imperfect.
Quisi^ra, qmsieraa, quisiera, quisieramos, quisierais, quisieran.
Quisiese, quisieses, quisiese, quisiesemos, quisieseis, quisiesen.
Querria, querrias, querria, querriamos, querriais, querrian.
Future.
Quisiere, quisieres, quisiere, quisieremos, quisiereis, quisi^ren.
Imperative.
qniere, quiera, — quieran.
SABER, TO KNOW.
I
I
Indicative Present.
Perfect.
S6pe, supiste, stipo, supimos, snpisteis, supi^ron.
Future.
Sabr6, sabr&a, 8abr§i, sabremos, salreia, sabr&a.
Subjunctive Present.
S6pa, 86pas, sepa, sep^mos, sep^i eepSou
LECT. XXV,] lEEEQITLAR VEEBS. 201
Imperfect.
Supiera, supi^ras, gnpiera, sujaeramos, supierais, supieran.
Supiese, supieses, supiese, supiesemos, supieseis, supiesen.
Sabria, sabrias, sabria, sabriamos, sabriais, sabrian.
Future.
Supiere, supieres, supi^re, supieremos, supi^reis, supieren.
Imperative,
^— s^pisi, sep&mos, sepan.
^ER, TO BE.
TENEE, TO HAVE, TO HOLD.
See these two verbs conjugated, pages 160 and 158.
TEAERy TO BRING, TO FETCH.
Indicative Present.
Tr^go,
Perfect,
Tr&je, trajiste, trajo, txajimos, trajisteis, trajeron.
Subjunctive Present.
Tr^ga, tr&igas, tr&iga, traigamos, traigSiis, tr^gan.
Imperfect.
Trajera, trajeras, trajera, trajeramos, traj^rais, trajeran.
Trajese, trajeses, txajese, trajesemos, trajeseis, trajesen.
Future.
Trajere, traj^res, traj^re, trajeremos, trajereis, trajereu.
Imperative.
— — tr&iga, traigamos, tr^ga.
participle Active. Tray^ndo.
VAZEE, TO BE WORTH.
Indicative Present,
Future.
Valdr6, valdr&s, yaldra, Taldremoa^ ▼aldt^is, valdr&n.
X 5
202 lEEEGTJLAIl VERBS. [lEOT. XXV
Subjunctive Present,
V&lga, T&lgas, v&lga, valgimos, valg&is, vftlgan.
Imperfect.
Valdria, yaldrias, valdria, Taldriamos, valdriais, valdrian.
Imperative,
— v61ga, ralg^os, — vfflgan.
VERy TO SEE,
Indicative Present
Imperfect.
Veia, velas, veia, veSamos, veJais, veian.
It has also a regular imperfect tense, as, vta, vitUy etc.
Subjunctive Present.
V^a, v^aa, vea, ve4mo8, ye&is, T^an.
Imperative.
■ v6a, vekmos, -^— T§an.
Farticiple Paat. Visto.
IKREQUIAR VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
ASIR, TO SEIZE.
Indicative Present.
ABgo, — —
Subjunctive Present.
Asga, &sga8, &sga, aag^os, asg&is, &Bgan.
Imperative.
— — fesga, asg&moa, — ftBgan.
DECIR, TO SAY, TO TELL.
Indicative Present.
Digo, ^Jces, dice, — dioen.
LEOT.
XXV.]
lEEEGXTLAR VEEB8.
203
Perfect,
Dije, dijiste, dijo, dijimos, dijisteis, dij&on.
Future.
Dir6, dir&s, dirJi, dir^mos, direis, dir&n.
Subjunctive Present.
Dlga, digas, diga, digamos, digSis, digan.
Imperfect.
Dij^ra, dijeras, dij6ra, dijeramos, dijerais, dijeran.
Dijese, dijeses, dijeae, dijesemos, dijeseis, dijesen.
Diria, dirias, diria, dixiamos, diilais, dirian.
Future.
Dijere, dij^res, dijere, dijeremos, dijereis, dijereix.
Imperative.
dl, diga, dig&.mo3, digan.
Participle Active. Diciendo.
Participle Past. Dicho.
Contradecir, to contradict, and predectr, to predict, are
conjugated like dectrf except that the second person
singular of the imperative is contradice and predice.
Bendecir, to bless, and maldeeir, to curse, are also
conjugated like decir, except that the future of the indi-
cative, and the imperfect subjunctive of the termination
rtor, are regular, and that the second person singular of
the imperative is lendice^ maldice. These two verbs
have each a regular and an irregular past participle ;
the latter is hendito and maldtto, and partake of the
nature of adjectives,
DOHMIE, TO SLEEP.
Indicative Present.
Du^rmo, du6rmea, duerme, — — dxi&men.
Perfect.
.. .._.. dunni6, — — durmi^ron.
Subjunctive Present.
Da^nua, duennas, duerma* durm^osy durm&isy du^niutn.
204 IBEEGTTLAB VEEBS, [lECT. XXV.
Imperfect,
Durmiera, — mieras, — mi^ra, — mieramos, — mi^rais, — mieran,
Lurmiese, — mieses. — miese, — miesemos, — mieseia, — miesen.
Future.
Durmi^re, — mieres, — miere, — mieremos, — miereis, — mieren.
Imperative.
duerme, du^rma, dunn^Lmos, da^nnan.
Participle Active. Durmiendo.
MoriVf to die, is conjugated like doi'mirj except that
its past participle is mue'rto,
INSTRUIR, TO INSTRUCT.
When the root of verbs of the third conjugation ends
in u, (as in instruir,^ this vowel takes a y after it before
those terminations beginning with e, a, or o : Ex.
Indicative Present.
Instrtiyo, inatrfiyes, instrtiye, -^— infltrtiyeiu
Subjunctive Present.
Instruya, instrfiyaa, instrtjya, instruy^onos, instniyais, instrfiyan.
Imperative.
instrtiye, instruya, instruykmos, — instriiyaii.
See also Note, Par. 3, Lect. 24.
VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE INSTRTTIB.
Arguir, atribuir, Concluir,* constituir, constniir, contribuir, Des-
truir, disminuir, distribiur, Excluir, Fluir, Huir, Imbuir, incluir.*
institiiir, Liiir, Obstruir, Prostituir, Recluir, restituir, retribuir,
Sustiluir.*
IR, TO GO.
This verb is remarkable for having the perfect tense
of the indicative, and the termination ra and se of the
♦ Concluir^ incluir^ and sustituir, have regular and irregulap
past participles ; the latter are eoncluso, incltiso, and sMtitiito.
LECT. XXV.]
IBREGULAB VERBS.
205
imperfect subjunctive, and the future of this mood pre-
cisely like the same in the verb Ser : Ex.
Indicative Present.
V6y,
▼as,
va,
vkmos.
Imperfect
▼fiSs,
▼an.
Iba,
ibas.
iba.
ibamos,
Perfect,
ibais,
iban.
Fui,
foiste,
fu6,
fuimoe.
Future.
fulsteis,
fueron.
Ir6,
iras,
irfe,
iremos,
irSis,
ir&n.
Subjunctive Present.
Vaya,
T&yas,
T^ya,
vay&,mos,
Imperfect.
vay^.
rayan.
Fuera,
Fuese,
Iria,
fu^ras,
fueses,
irias,
fuera,
fuese,
iria,
fueramos,
fuesemos,
iriamos,
Future,
fu^rais,
fueseis,
iriais.
fu^ran.
fuesen,
irian.
Fulre,
fueres.
fu6re,
fueremos,
Imperative,
lukeLs,
fa^reiL
▼6,
vSiya,
( v^mos,
< or,
[ vayamos,
wkjuu
larticiple Active. YendOk
Tarticiple Fast. Tdo
ZUCIB, TO SHINE.
This verb has the same irregularities as aborrecer, but
its conjugation is here exhibited, being of a different
termination: Ex.
Indicative Present
Subjunctive Present.
Ltizco,
Liizca, Itizcas, Itizca, luzc^os,
luzc&is, liizcan.
206 IREEQTJLAE VEBBS. [lEOT. XX7,
Imperative.
■ Itizca, liizcJunos, — — I6zcan.
Verbs ending in ducir, as CoNDUcm, to conduct, in
addition to the irregularities in lucirt have alao the fol-
lowing :
Indicative Perfect.
Coodfije, — dujiflte, — dfijo, — dujimos, — dujisteis, — duj^ron.
Subjunctive Imperfect.
Condujera, — dujSras, — dujera, — dujeramos, — dujeraia, — dnj6raii.
Condujese, — dujesea, — dujese.^-dujesemos, ^-dujeseia, — dujesen-
Future.
Condujere, — dujeres, — dujere, — dujeremoe, — ^luj^rda, — dujeren.
VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE CONDUCIR.
Deducir, Inducir, introducir, Producir,* Eeducir, Traducir,
OIR, TO HEAIL
The irregularities in this verb are like those in caer ;
they are nevertheless exhibited from its being of a
different conjugation : Ex.
Indicative Present.
Oigo,"] 6ye8, 6ye, 6yeii.
Subjunctive Present
Oiga, 6iga8, 6iga, oig^mos, oig&is, 6igaiu
Imperative.
6ye, 6iga, oig^moa, — — 6igan.
See also iVbfc, Pae. 3, Lect. 24.
FJEDIR, TO ASK, TO BEG.
Indicative Present.
Pido, pides, pide, piden.
• Producir has a regular and an irregular past participle ; the
latter is prodkzto.
LECT. ZXV.J IBBEGXJLAB VEHSS. 207
P&rfecU
■ —■'" pidi6, — — pidi6ron.
Suhjunetive Present.
Pida, pldas, pida, pid^os, pid^ pldan.
Imperfect.
Pidi^ra, pidieras, pidiera, pidieramos, pidierais^ pidieran.
Pidiese, pidieses, pidiese, pidiesemos, pidieseia, pidieseo.
Future.
Pidi^re, pidierei^ pidiere, pidieremos, pidiereia, pidieren.
Imperative.
plde, plda, pid^mos, - pidan.
Farticiple Active. Pidiendo.
VEEBS CONJUGATED LIKE FEBIB.
Apercibir, arrecir, Cenir, colegir, competir, concebir, constrefiir,
Derretir, desleir, Elegir, embestir, engreir, Freir, p.p. frito, Gemir,
Heiiir, Medir, Kegir, reix, rendir, refiir, repetir, Seguir, servir,
Tenir,* Yestir.
lODRIB, TO ROT.
Indicative Present.
P6dro, piidies, p6dre, — ^ ptidren.
Perfect.
Pudri, pudriate, pudrio, pudrimos, padrlsteis, pudri^ron.
Subjunctive Present.
Ptidra, ptldras, p^dra, pudrimos, pudr&iSy ptidian.
Imperfect,
Pudriera, pudrieraa, pudriera, pudrieramos, pudrierais, pudri^ran,
Pudiiese, pudrieses, pudriese, pudriesemos, pudiieseis, pudrieseiu
Future.
Pudri&re, pudri^res, pudriere, pudrieremos, pndri^reia, pudri6ren.
• Tenir has a regular'and an irregular past participle ; the latter
is Unto.
208 IRREGULAR VERBS. [lECT. XXV,
Imperative,
p6dre, pudra, pudr&mos, -^— ptkdran.
Participle Active. Pudri^nda
SALIB, TO GO OUT.
This verb has the same irregularities as vafer, except
the second person singular of the imperative ; and it is
here exhibited from its being of a different termination :
Ex.
Indicative Present.
SSJgo,
Future.
Saldre, saldr&j, ealdr^ saldremos, aaldreis, saldrin.
Subjunctive Present
S^ga, s&lgas, 8&lga, salgamos, salg^, s&lgan.
Imperfect,
Saldiia, saldrias, saldria, ealdriamos, saldriaia, saldriau.
Imperative,
tal, B&lga, salg&jnos, e&lgan.
SENTIR, TO FEEL, TO REGRET, TO PERCEIVE.
Indicative Present.
Siento, dentee, siente, ■ rienten.
Perfect,
— — 8inti6, — iinti^ron.
Subjunctive Present.
6i6nta, ei^ntas, sienta, sintamos, sint^is, si^ntan.
ImperfecL
Sintiera, sintieras, sintiera, sintieramos, sintierais, sinti^raii.
Sintiese, sintieses, sintiese, sintiesemos, sintieseis, sintiesen*
Future.
Sintiere, sintieres, sinti^re, sintieremos, sinti^reis, sinti^ren.
Imperative.
siente, si6nta, sint&.mos, -^— aientaa,
Farticijple Active. Siutiendo.
LKOT. XXV.]
ERREGULAK VERBS.
209
VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE 8ENTIR.
Adherir, advertir, adquirir, arrepentir, asentir, Conferir, contro-
vertir, convertir, Deferir, diferir, digerir, divertir, Erguir,* Herir,
hervir, Inferir, ingerir,+ mvertir,t Mentir, Pervertir,t preferir,
proferir, Refeiir, requerir, Sugerir, Zaherir.
VENIRy TO COME.
Indicative Present,
V6ngo, vi&ies, yiene, ■^— Ti^nen.
Perfect,
Vine^ Tinisten vino, yinimos, yinisteis, vinieron.
Mtture,
Vendr6, vendr^, vendrS., vendremos, vendr6is, vendr&nu
Subjunctive Present.
Venga, vengas, yenga, vengamos, veng§iia, vengan.
Imperfect.
Vini6ra, vinieras, viniera, vinieramos, vinierais, vinieran.
Viniese, vinieses, yiniese, viniesemos, yinieseis, ymiesen.
Vendria, yendrias, yendria, yendriamos, yendriais, yendrian.
Future,
Viniere, yinieres, yiniere, yinieremos, yiniereis, yinierea.
Imperative,
ven, yenga, yengamos, yengan.
Farticiple Active. Viniendo.
VERBS IRREGULAR IN THE PAST PARTICIPLE ONLY.
Infinitive.
Abrir, to open,
cubrir, to cover,
escribir, to write,
freir, to fry.
imprimir, to print.
Past Farticiple.
abierto, opened,
cubierto, covered,
escrito, written,
frito, fried,
impreso, printed.
And their compounds. — To these may be added all
those in the following list marked with an asterisk.
* The irregular persons of erguir are written with an A ; as,
hi^rgOy hiirgas, etc.
+ Jnvertir, ingerir, and pervertir^ have regular and irregular past
participles ; the latter are wrer«o, ingirtOt aj^perv^rao.
210
IBREQULAB VERBS. [lBOT XXV.
2. The following is a list of regular and irregular
verbs that have two participles past, the one regular,
the other irregular : the former are employed with the
auxiliaries, to form the compound tenses; the latter
partake of the nature of adjectives, and are not always
employed in the formation of compound tenses : however,
presOy prescrito, provisto, and roto, are sometimes seen used
with haher, instead of prendido, prescribidoj proveido, and
rompido ; and those marked with the dagger may be
employed with estar. Those marked with an asterisk
are regular throughout their conjugations.
Infinitive*.
lUg. Past,
Fart.
Irr. P. Part
or Adj.
•♦
Absorver,
to abnorb.
absorvido,
ab8orto,t
absorbed.
abstraer.
to abstract.
abstraido,
abstracto,
abstracted.
aguzar,*
to sharpen.
aguzado,
agudo,
sharpened.
alertarse,
to be alert.
olertado,
alerto,t
alert.
angostar,*
to narrow.
angostado,
angosto,
narrowed.
atender,
to attend.
atendido,
atento,t
attended.
ahitar,*
to surfeit.
ahitado,
ahito,
tturfeited.
bendecir,
to bless.
bendecido,
bendito,
blessed.
bienquerer,
to esteem.
bienquerido,
bienquistOjt
esteemed.
cocer,
to boU.
cocido,
cocbo,t
boiled.
eompeler,*
to compel.
compeUdo,
compulso,
compelled.
completar,^
to complete.
completado,
completo,t
completed.
concluir,
to conclude.
concluido,
concluso,
concluded.
concretar,
to concrete.
concretado,
concreto,
concrete.
confundir,*
to confound.
confundido,
confuso,t
confounded.
contentar,
to content.
contentado,
contento,t
contented.
contraer,
to contract.
contraido,
contracto,
contracted.
convencer,*
to convince.
convencido,
convicto,
convinced.
convertir,
to convert.
convertido,
converso,
converted.
convulsar,*
to convulse.
convulsado,
convulso,
convulsed. '
corregir,
to correct.
corregido,
correcto,t
corrected.
corromper,* to corrupt.
corrompido,
corrupto,
corrupted.
corvar,*
to curve.
corvado,
corvo,t
curved.
cultivar,*
to cultivate.
cultivado,
culto,
cultivated.
densar,*
to condense.
condensado,
condenso,
condensed.
descalzar,*
to un-shoe.
descalzado.
de3calzo,t
barefooted.
desertar,
to desert-
desertado,
desierto,
deserted.
desnudar,*
to undress.
desnudado,
desnudo.t
undressed.
despertar.
to awake.
despertado.
despierto,t
awaked.
difundir,*
to diffuse.
difundido,
difuso,
diffused.
dirigir,*
to direct.
dirigido,
directo,
directed.
dispersar,*
to disperse.
dispersado,
disperse,
dispersed.
distinguir,* to distingniah.distinguido,
distinto,t
distinguished
dividir,*
to divide.
dividido,
diviso,
divided.
elegir,
to elect.
eletfido.
electo,
elected.
LEC3T. XXV.]
lEREQXJIiAB VERBS,
211
Lifinitivet*
engugar,* to dry.
erigir,* to erect,
exceptuar,* to except,
excluir,* to exclude,
exentar,* to exempt,
expeler,* to expel,
expresar,* to express,
extender, to extend,
extinguir,* to extinguish,
extraer, to extract,
exiinir,* to exempt,
faltar * to fail,
favorecer, to favour,
fechar,* to date,
fijar,* to fix.
hartar,* to satiate,
imprimir,* to print,
improvisar,* to improvise,
incluir,* to include,
incurrir,* to incur.
infundir,* to infuse,
ingerir, to ingraft,
ingertar,* to ingraft,
insertar, to insert,
invertir, to invert,
iuntar,* to join,
limpiar,* to clean,
maldecir, to curse,
manifestar, to manifest,
manumitir,* to emancipate
marchitar,* to wither,
ocultar,* to conceal,
amitir,* to omit,
oprimir,* to oppress,
pervertir, to pervert,
perfeccionar,* to perfect,
prender,* to seize,
prescribir,* to prescribe,
producir, to produce,
profesar,* to profess,
propender,* to incline,
proveer,* to provide,
raciocinar,* to reason,
recliur, to seclude,
reflejar, to reflect,
refringir,* to refract,
remitir,* to relax,
repeler,* to repeL
Reg. Past Irr.JP. Part^
Fart. or Adj.
enjugado, enjuto,t dried.
engido, erecto,t erected-
exceptuado, excepto, excepted,
excluido, excluso, excluded.
exentado, exento,t exempted,
expelido, expulso, expelled,
expresado, expreso, expressed,
extendido, extenso,t extended,
extinguido, extinto,t extinguished,
extraido, extracto, extracted,
eximido, exento,t exempted,
faltado, faltOjt failed,
favorecido, favorito, favoured,
fechado, fecho,t dated,
fijado, fijo,t fixed,
hartado, harto,t satiated,
imprimido, impreso,t printed,
improvisado, improvisto, improvised,
incluido, incluso,t included,
incurrido, incurso, incurred.
infidoSo. } -f-'^. i^f-'^'l-
infundido, infuso, infused,
ingerido, ingerto, ingrafted.
ingertado, ingerto, ingrafted,
insertado, inserto, inserted,
invertido, in verso, inverted,
juntado, junto,t joined,
limpiado, limpio, cleaned,
maldecido, maldito, cursed,
manif estado, manifie8to,t manifested.
. manumitido, manumiso, emancipated*
marchitado, marchito,t withered-
ocultado, oculto,t concealed,
omitido, omiso, omitted,
oprimido, opreso, oppressed,
pervertido, perverso, perverted,
perfeccionado, perfecto,t perfected,
prendido, preso,t seized,
prescribido, prescrito,t prescribed
producido, producto, produced,
profesado, profeso, professed,
propendido, propenso,t' inclined,
proveido, provistOjf provided,
raciocinado, raciocinio, reasoned,
recluido, recluso, secluded,
reflejado, reflejo, reflected,
refringido, refracto, refracted,
remitido, remisOjt relaxed.
repeUdo, lepuLso, repelled.
212
lEREQULAE VERBS.
[lect.
3LXV.
In/tnitivet,
restringir,*
romper,*
salvar,*
secar,
sepultar,*
Boltar,
Bujetar,*
surgir,*
suprimir,*
suspender,"
sustituir,*
tenir,
torcer,
xafar,*
10 restrict,
to break.
to save,
to dry.
to bury,
to loosen,
to subject,
to ancnor.
to suppress.
to suspend,
to sxibstitute.
to dye.
to twist,
to rid.
Segr. Past
Fart.
restringido,
rompido,
ealvado,
eecado,
sepultado,
6oltado,
snjetado,
Burgido,
Buprimido,
suspendito,
sustituido,
teiiido,
torcido,
zai'ado,
Irr. P. Pari^
or Adj.
restricto,
roto,t
salvo.t
8eco,t
Bepulto,
Buelto,t
8ujeto,t
8urto,t
Bupreso,
Buspenso,t
Bustituto,
tinto,
tuerto,f
2afo,t
restricted.
broken.
saved.
dried.
buried.
loosened.
Bubiected.
anchored,
suppressed.
suspended.
substituted.
dyed.
twisted.
rid.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OP ALL THE IRREGULAB VERBS
IN THE SPANISH LANGUAGE,
Arranged in three divisions according to their termina-
tions, with references to the verbs which they are
conjugated like in the Examples.
First Conjugation,
Acertar
to ascertain,
cof\jugated
page 192
acordar
agree.
ib.
193
acordar
remember,
like acordar.
ib.
acostar
lie down.
~ ib.
acrecentar
increase.
acertar.
192
adestrar
guide, to instruct,
ib.
agorar
augur,
acordar.
193
alentar
encourage,
acertar.
192
almorzar
breakfast.
acordar.
193
amolar
grind,
ib.
andar
walk, togO»
conjugated
194
apacentar
graze,
acertar.
192
aporcar
dirt,
acordar.
193
aportar
arrive at port,
ib.
apostar
' bet,
ib.
apretar
press,
acertar.
192
aprobar
approve,
acordar.
193
arrendar
rent.
acertar.
192
asentar
note down,
ib.
asestar
take aim,
ib.
aeolar
destroy,
f urnisn money,
acordar.
193
asoldar
ib,
asonar
accord in sound.
ib.
LECT. XXV.]
IRREGTTT.An VERBS.
213
aterrar
to terrify,
Uhe acertar.
page 192
atentar
attempt,
ib.
atestar
cram,
ib.
atravesar
cross, to pierce,
ib.
aventar
fan,
ib.
avergonzar
be ashamed,
acordar.
193
bregar
contend,
acertar.
192
calenlar
warm,
ib.
cegar
blind,
ib.
cerrar
to shut, to cloie^
ib.
cimentar
found.
ib.
colar
strain liquor.
acordar.
193
colgar
hang,
ib.
comenzar
commence.
acertar.
192
comprobar
corroborate,
acordar.
193
concertar
concert.
acertar.
192
concordar
agree.
acordar.
193
confesar
confess,
acertar.
192
consolar
comfort,
acordar.
193
consonar
agree in tone, to rhyme.
ib.
contar
count,
ib.
costar
cost.
ib.
dar
handsel,
conjugated
194
decentar
acertar.
192
degollar
decapitate.
acordar.
193
demonstrar
demonstrate^
ib.
denegar
refuse,
acertar.
192
denostrar
revile,
acordar.
193
derrengar
cripple,
acertar.
192
desacertar
mistake,
ib.
desacordar
be discordant,
acordar.
193
desalentar
discourage,
acertar.
192
desapretar
loosen,
ib.
desaprobar
disapprove,
acordar.
193
desasosegar
disturb,
acertar.
192
desatentar
perplex,
ib.
descolgar
unhang,
acordar.
193
descoUar
surpass.
ib.
desconcertar
disarrange^
acertar.
192
desconsolar
afflict,
acordar.
193
descontar
discount.
ib.
desencerrar
let out, or loose,
acertar.
192
desengrosar
diminish in thickness.
acordar.
193
desenterrar
disinter.
acertar.
192
desflocar
ravel out.
acordar.
193
desfogar
give vent to paswoB,
ib.
deshelar
thaw,
acertar.
192
desherrar
imshoe horses,
ib.
desmembrar
dismember,
ib.
desolar
desolate,
acordar.
193
desoUar
flav,
ib.
desoyar
spawn,
ib.
214
IBBEGI7LAB VERBS.
[lECT. XXV.
desp«mar
to cnt off legs, or break legs, like acertar.
pag9 192
despertar
awake,
ib.
desplegar
unfold,
ib.
despoblar
depopulate,
acordar.
193
desterrar
banish,
acertar.
192
desvergonzar
be impudenL
acordar.
193
dezmar
tithe.
acertar.
192
descordar
disagree.
acordar.
193
empedrar
pave.
acertar.
192
empezar
begin.
ib.
emporcar
soil,
acordar.
193
encensar
cense,
acertar.
192
encerrar
enclose,
ib.
encomendar
recommend.
ib.
encontrar
find, to meet,
acordar.
193
encordar
string,
ib.
encubertar
cover with clothes.
acertar.
192
engrosar
grow stout,
acordar.
193
enmendar
mend,
acertar.
192
enrodar
break on the wheel.
acordar.
193
ensangrentar
etain with blood,
acertar.
192
enterrar
bury.
ib.
errar
err,
ib.
escarmentar
learn by experience^
ib.
eeforzarse
endeavour.
acordar.
193
estar
be,
conjugated
162
estregar
scour,
acertar.
192
forzar
force.
acordar.
193
firegar
rub, to scrub,
acertar.
192
gobernar
helar
, govern,
; leeze.
ib.
ib.
herrar
shoe horses.
ib.
holgar
rest.
acordar.
193
hollar
trample,
ib.
infemar
provoke, to damn,
acertar.
192
invemar
winter,
ib.
jugar
play,
tonjugated
194
manifestar
manifest,
acertar.
192
xnentar
mention.
ib.
inerendar
take a collaliaii,
ib.
mostrar
show,
acordar.
193
negar
deny.
acertar.
192
nevar
snow,
ib.
pensar
think,
ib.
pemiquehrar
break legs,
ib.
plegar
plait, to fi^
ib.
poblar
people,
•cordar.
19)
probar
prove.
ib.
quebrar
break.
acertar.
192
Tttcomendar
recommend.
ib.
recordar
remind.
acordar.
193
xecostar
recline
ib.
LECT. XXV.]
IBIIEOITLAB VEEBS.
815
reforzajr
regar
regoldar
remendar
renegap
renovar
replegar
reprobar
requebrar
rescontrar
resollar
resonar
retemblar
retentap
reventar
revolar
revolcar
rodar
rogar
segar
sembrar
sentar
eerrar
solar
soldar
Boltar
sonar
Bonar
Bosegar
Boterrar
temblar
tentar
tostar
trascolar
trascordap
Uke
trasonar
trocar
tronar
tropezar
volar
Tolcar
AbastecQP
aborrecer
absolver
abeorvep
abstraep
acaecer
to reinforce,
water,
belch,
mend,
abjure,
renew,
fall back from a position,
reprove,'
cajole, to flatter,
compensate,
breathe,
resound,
vibrate,
threaten with a relapse^
burst,
fly again,
wallow,
roll,
pray,
reap corn,
BOW,
sit,
saw,
sole.
Bolder,
let go, or loose,
Bound,
dream,
tranquillize,
bury,
tremble,
tempt,
toast,
strain, to percolate,
forget,
decant,
dream, to fancy,
barter,
thunder,
Btumble,
fly.
overset.
Second Conjugation,
provide
hate,
absolve^
absorb,
abstract,
happen.
acordap,
page 193
acertar.
192
acordar.
193
acertar.
192
ib.
acordap.
193
acertar.
192
acordar.
193
acertar.
192
acordar.
193
ib.
ib.
acertai.
192
ib.
ib.
acordar.
193
ib.
ib.
ib.
acertar.
192
ib.
ib.
ib.
acordar.
193
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
acertar.
192
ib.
ib.
ib.
acordar.
193
ib.
ib.
acertar.
192
acordar.
193
ib.
ib.
acertar.
192
acordar.
198
ib.
aborrecer.
195
eoiyugated
ib.
absorver.
197
conjugated
ib.
traer.
201
aborrecer.
195
216
mBEGULAS VERBS.
[leci; XXV.
acontecer
to happen,
Kke aborrecer.
iHV«195
adolecer
be seized with illneaa,
ib.
adormecer
fall asleep, to lull,
ib.
agradecer
be thankful,
ib.
amanecer
dawn,
ib.
anochecer
grow dark,
ib.
anteponer
prefer, to place before,
poner.
199
antever
foresee,
ver.
202
aparecer
appear,
aborrecer.
195
apetecer
long for,
ib.
ascender
ascend,
conjugated
197
atender
attend.
ascender.
ib.
atenerse
stand to,
tener.
158
atraer
attract.
traer.
201
caber
contain, etc..
conjugated
198
caer
faU,
ib.
ib.
canecer
become grey headed.
aborrecer.
195
carecer
be deficient.
ib.
earner
sift.
ascender.
197
cocer
boil.
conjugated
196
corupadeoer
pity.
aborrecer.
195
comparecer
appear before.
ib.
complacer
give pleasure.
ib.
componer
compose,
poner.
199
condescender
condescend.
ascender.
197
condoler
condole.
absorver.
ib.
conmover
excite commotion.
ib.
conocer
know,
aborrecer.
195
contender
contend,
ascender.
197
contener
contain,
tener.
158
contrahacor
counterfeit,
hacer.
195
contraer
contract.
traer.
201
convalecer
be convalescent,
aborrecer.
195
crecer
grow.
ib.
decaer
decay.
caer.
198
defender
defend,
ascender.
197
demoler
demolish.
absorver.
ib.
deponer
depose,
poner.
199
desaparecer
disappear.
aboiTecer.
195
desatender
neglect.
ascender.
197
descender
descend.
ib.
descomponer
decompose,
poner.
199
desconocer
disown,
aborrecer.
195
desentender
feign ignorance, mistake,
ascender.
197
desentorpecer
recover from numbness.
to reanimate,
aborrecer.
195
desenrolver
unroll,
absorver.
197
desfallecer
pine,
become emaciatedy
aborrecer.
195
desflaquecer
ib.
desguarnecer
ungamish,
ib.
deshacer
undo,
hacer.
ih.
aesobedecer
disobey,
aborrecer.
ib.
LECT. XXV.]
IRREGULAB VERBS.
217
desplacer
to displease,
Uke aborrecer,
page 196
destorcer
untwist,
absorver.
197
desvanecer
vanish,
aborrecer.
19o
detener
detain,
tener.
158
devolver
restore.
absorver.
197
disolver
dissolve,
ib.
disponer
dispose.
poner.
199
distraer
distract, to amus^
traer. '
201
doler
ache,
absorver.
197
dolerse
grieve,
ib.
embravecer
become furious.
aborrecer.
195
embrutecer
become bnital.
ib.
emplumecer
become fledged.
ib.
empobrecer
impoverish.
ib.
encalvecer
become bald.
ib.
encallecer
render callous.
ib.
encarecer
enhance the value,
ib.
encender
light, to kindle,
ascender.
197
encrudecer
become raw,
aborrecer.
195
encruelecer
render, or become cruel,
ib.
endentecer
cut the teeth.
ib.
endurecer
harden,
ib.
enflaquecer
grow lean, or weak,
ib.
enfurecer
become furious.
ib.
engrandecer
aggrandize, to enlarge,
ib.
enloquecer
become or render mad.
ib.
enmohecer
grow mouldy,
ib.
enmudecer
become dumb,
ib.
ennegrecer
blacken,
ib.
ennoblecer
ennoble,
ib.
enrarecer
rarefy.
ib.
enriquecer
enrich.
ib.
ensoberbecer
become haughty,
ib.
entallecer
sprout,
ib.
entender
understand,
ascender.
197
entemecer
soften.
aborrecer.
195
entorpecer
benumb, to Etupify,
ib.
entretener
entertain,
tener.
158
entristecer
sadden.
aborrecer.
195
entuUecer
cripple,
ib.
entumecer
swell
ib.
eiivejecer
grow old,
ib.
enverdecer
grow green.
ib.
envoi ver
wrap,
absorver.
197
equivaler
be equivalent,
valer.
201
escarnecer
scofP,
aborrecer.
195
esclarecer
illuDiinate,
ib.
escocer
smart.
absorver.
197
establecer
establish.
aborrecer.
195
estremecer
shudder,
ib.
exponer
expose,
poner.
199
extender
extend
ascender.
197
218
lEREGULAE VERBS.
[lECT. XXV.
extraer
to extract,
ake traer.
page 201
fallecer
die,
aborrecer.
196
favorecer
favour,
ib.
fenecer
terminate,
ib.
fortalecer
fortify,
ib.
guarnecer
garnish,
ib.
haber
have,
tonjugated.
157
hacer
make, to d(\
ib.
195
heder
atink,
ascender.
197
hender
split,
ib.
humedecer
moisten,
aborrecer.
195
imponer
impose.
poner.
199
indisponer
indispose,
ib.
Hover
rain,
absorver.
197
mantener
maintain.
tener.
158
merecer
deserve,
aborrecer.
195
moler
grind.
absorver.
197
morder
bite,
ib.
mover
move,
ib.
nacer
be bom.
aborrecer.
19
negrecer
grow blacl^
ib.
obedecer
obey,
ib.
obscurecer
darken,
ib.
obtener
obtain.
tener.
158
cfrecer
offer.
aborrecer.
195
oler
smeli.
absorver.
197
oponer
oppose,
poner.
199
pacer
graze.
aborrecer.
195
padecer
suffer.
ib.
parecer
seem,
ib.
perder
lose,
ascender.
197
perec^r
perish,
aborrecer.
196
pertenecer
belong,
ib.
placer
)lease.
ib.
poder
)e able,
eopjugated.
199
poner
put, to placft,
conjugated.
ib.
preponer
place before.
poner.
ib.
presuponer
presuppose.
ib.
prevalecer
prevail.
aborrecer.
195
prever
foresee,
ver.
20ii
promover
promote,
absorver.
197
proponer
propose,
poner.
199
querer
like, to be willing.
conjugated.
200
recaer
relapse,
caer.
198
recocer
re-boil,
cocer.
196
reconocer
acknowledge.
aborrecer.
195
recrecer
grow again,
ib.
reflorecer
re-blossom.
ib.
rehacer
do over again,
hacer.
ib.
remanecer
remain,
aborrecer.
ib.
remorder
bite repeatedly.
absorver.
197
remoYer
remove.
ib.
LECT. XXV.]
mHEGUXAE VERBS.
219
reponer
to replace,
iiXie poner.
page 199
resolver
resolve,
absorver.
197
restablecer
re-establish,
aborrecer.
195
retener
retain,
tener.
158
retorcer
twist, to sprain,
absorver.
197
retraer
retract, to draw back,
traer.
201
retrotraer
bring about what has hap-
pened before,
ih.
rever
review,
ver.
202
reverdecer
grow green again,
aborrecer.
195
reverter
overflow,
ascender.
197
revolver
revolve,
absorver.
ib.
saber
know,
conjugated.
200
satisfacer
satisfy,
hacer.
195
eer
be,
conjugated.
160
sobreponer
place over,
poner.
199
Boler
he wont,
absorver.
197
sostener
sustain,
tener.
158
substraer
substract,
traer.
201
suponer
suppose.
poner.
199
tender
spread out.
ascender.
197
tener
have, to hold,
conjugated.
158
torcer
twist.
absorver.
197
traer
bring, to fetch.
conjugated.
201
trascender
transcend.
ascender.
197
trasponer
transpose,
poner.
199
valer
be worth,
conjugated.
201
ver
Bee,
conjugated.
202
veiter
spill, to shed,
ascender.
197
volver
return.
absorver.
ib.
Third Conjugation,
Adherir
adhere.
aentir,
page 203
adquirir
acquire.
ib.
advertir
advert.
ib.
apercibir
provide,
pedir.
206
asir
seize,
conjugated.
202
argiiir
argue,
instruir.
204
arrecir
become numb with cold,
pedir.
206
arrepentir
repent,
sentir.
208
asentir
assent,
ib.
atribuir
attribute.
instruir.
204
avenirse
agree,
venir.
209
bendecir
bless,
decir.
202
cenir
gird.
pedir.
206
colegir
collect,
ib.
comedir
grow moderat*.
ib.
competir
compete.
ib.
concebir
conceive.
ib.
concluir
conclude,
instruir.
204
220
IRREGXTLAB VERBS.
[lECT. XXV.
conducir
to conduct, to conduce,
conjugated,
page 206
conferir
confer,
like sentir.
208
conseguir
obtain, to succeed.
pedir.
206
consentir
consent,
sentir.
208
constituir
constitute.
instruir.
204
constrefiir
constrain,
pedir.
206
constniir
construe,
instruir.
204
contradecir
contradict.
decir.
202
contravenir
oppose.
venir.
209
contribuir
contribute.
instruir.
204
controvertir
controvert.
sentir.
208
convenir
suit,
venir.
209
convertir
convert,
sentir.
208
correjir
correct.
pedir.
206
decir
say, to tell.
conjugated.
202
deducir
infer,
conducir.
206
deferir
defer.
sentir.
208
derritir
melt,
pedir.
206
desavenir
disagree,
venir.
209
deacenir
ungird,
pedir.
206
descomedir
grow rude, unnily,
ib.
desconsentir
dissent.
sentir.
208
desdecir
retract,
decir.
202
desleir
dilute,
pedir.
206
deslucir
tarnish,
instruir.
204
desmentir
contradict.
sentir.
208
despedir
dismiss.
pedir.
209
despedirse
take leave,
ib.
destenir
discolour,
ib.
destruir
destroy,
instruir.
204
diferir
diifer, to defer.
sentir.
208
digerir
digest.
ib.
disminuir
diminish.
instruir.
204
distrihuir
distribute,
ib.
divertir
divert,
sentir.
208
dormir
aleep.
eovjugated.
203
elegir
elect,
pedir.
206
em bestir
assail,
ib.
engreirse
become vain,
ib.
enlucir
whitewash, to scour plate, lucir.
205
entieoir
hear indistinctly,
oir.
206
envestir
invest.
pedir.
ib.
erguir
hold up the head,
sentir.
208
estrenir
produce astringency.
pedir.
206
excluir
exclude.
instruir.
204
expedir
expedite,
pedir.
206
fluir
flow.
instruir.
204
freir
fry,
pedir.
206
gemir
moan,
ib.
heilir
knead.
ib.
herir
wound,
sentir.
208
hervir
boil,
ib
LECT. XXV.]
iRREGtrLAR VERBS.
221
huir
to flee,
imbuir
imbue,
impedir
impede,
incluir
include,
inducir
induce.
inferir
infer,
ingerir
ingraft,
inter venir
intervene.
instituir
institute,
iiiptruir
instruct,
introdiicir
introduce,
invertir
invert,
inveatir
invest.
ir
go,
lucS
shine.
luir
wear by friction.
maldecir
curse.
medir
measure,
mentir
lie.
morir
die,
obstruir
obstruct.
oir
hear,
pedir
ask, to beg,
perseguir
persecute,
pervertir
pervert.
podrir
rot.
predecir
predict.
preferir
prefer.
presentir
lave a presentiment,
prevenir
prevent, to warn.
producir
produce.
proferir
utter,
proseguir
prosecute.
prostituir
prostitute,
provenir
proceed from.
recluir
cloister,
reducir
reduce,
referir
refer,
regir
rule,
reir
laugh,
rendir
yield.
renir
quarrel, to scold.
repetir
repeat.
reproducir
reproduce.
requerir
require.
resentir
resent,
restituir
restore, ^
retpnir
dye again,
retribuir.
compensate.
revestir.
revest, to dress.
salir.
to go out, to come out,
Beducir
seduce,
iike instruir,
ib.
pedir.
page 204
206
instruir.
204
conducir.
206
sentir.
208
ib.
venir.
209
instruir.
204
conjugated.
ib.
conducir.
206
sentir.
208
pedir.
206
conjugated.
204
ib.
205
instruir.
204
decir.
202
pedir.
206
sentir.
208
dormir.
203
instruir.
204
«onjugated.
206
ib.
pedir.
ib.
sentir.
208
conjugated.
207
decir.
202
sentir.
208
ib.
venir.
209
conducir.
206
sentir.
208
pedir.
206
instruir.
204
venir.
209
instruir.
204
conducir.
206
sentir.
208
pedir.
206
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
conducir.
ib.
sentir.
208
ib.
instruir.
204
pedir.
206
instruir.
204
pedir.
206
conjugated.
208
conducir.
206
222
tRREGULAE VEEBS.
[lECT. XXV
Beguir
to follow,
like perlir,
page 206
eentir
feel,
conjugated.
208
eervir
serve,
pedir.
206
sobresalir
surpass,
salir.
208
eobrevenir
happen,
venir.
209
Bonreirse
smile,
pedir.
206
Bubstituir
substitute.
instiuir.
204
Bugerir
suggest,
sentir.
208
tefiir
dye.
pedir.
206
traducir
translate,
conducir.
ib.
venir
come.
conjugated.
209
vestir
dress,
pedir.
206
zaheiir
censure.
sentir.
208
ANCIENT MANNEE OF FORMING SOME OF THE TENSES OF
IRREGULAR VERBS.
3. Formerly, irregular verbs in Spanish had the same
difference in spelling from the modern style, in the
second person plural, as regular verbs had, as noticed
in Lect. 24, Par. 4 : thus, Sodes, habe'cles, acertddes,
ascendedes, sentidesj instead of, soiSf habe'is, acertdis, as-
cendeis, sentis.
Likewise those which now terminate in i or y, in the
first person singular of the present indicative, were
written without this final vowel ; thus, so, rfo, voy instead
of, soy, doy, voy.
Many of those which now end in go and ga were
written without the g; thus, cdyo^ cdya, oyo, oya^ trdyOj
trdya, vdlo, vdla, instead of, cdigo, cdiga^ oigo, diga, trdigo,
trdiga, vdlgo, vdlga, etc.
Those which now have a u in their root had formerly
and 0 instead ; thus, cohrid, cdpo, dvo, moridy dormid, pdsOy
sdpOy instead of, cubrid, cupo, hubo, murid, durmid, pusOy
iupo, etc.
Likewise vemd was used for vendrd ; diz, for dtcen ;
pornia, iov pondn'a ; m'de, and vido, for vt &TLdvid;trujey
trujeray etc., for tidje, traje'ra, etc
LECT. XXVtJ IMPERSONAL VEBB3,
223
LECTURE XXVI.
IMPEKSONAL VEKBS.
HABER* THERE TO BE.
1; The verb hdber, used impersonally, is employed
alike in both numbers ; and, like most impersonal verbs,
it is used only in the third person of the several
tenses, as follows.
Infinitive.
Haber,
There to be.
Indie. Present.
H^y,
There is, or there are.
Imperfect,
Habia,
There was, or there were.
Perfect.
Hubo,
There was, or there wave.
Future.
Habr^,
There wiU be.
Subj. Present.
Haya,
There may be.
Imperfect.
i Hubiera, hubi^se, "
\ habria, j
There should, might, or
would be.
Future.
Hubiere,
If there should be.
Imperative.
Haya,
Let there be.
Part. Active,
Habiendo,
There being.
Comp. ditto.
Habiendo habido,
EXAMPLES.
There having been.
Hay un hombre alii.
Then
J is a man there.
Habia muchos.
There
were many.
Habrd gran
cantidad.
There will be a great quan-
tity
Jamas ha
habido tantas
Then
' never have been bo
quejas.
many complaints
2. Amanecer, to dawn, and Anochecer, to become
night, are irregular in their conjugations like aborrecer :
Ex.
Amanece muy temprano.
Amanecio lloviendo.
Anochece muy tarde.
Presto anochecerd.
Day breaks very early^
It rained at day break.
It grows dark very late.
It will soon be night.
The verbs Amanecer and Anocheoer are sometimes
used with the three persons singular and plural, and
224
IMPEE80NAL VEEB3.
[lect.
XXVI.
denote the situation or condition of the nominative at
the time expressed by the verb : Ex.
Amanecimos en Cadiz y We reached Cadiz at the
anochecimoa en Se villa, dawn of day, and Seville
at dusk.
Amanecio de mal humor. He awoke in a bad humour.
3. Graj^tzab. to hail ; Lloviznar, to drizzle ; and
Relampaouear, to lighten, are also regular in their
conjupjations.
Helab, to freeze, and Nbvar, to snow, are irregular
like acertar.
Ijlover, to rain, and Tronar, to thunder, are irregu-
lar like absorver : Ex.
Orantza ahora, y quiza It hails now, and probably
helard luego.
Ha lloviznado un poco.
Ayer tron6 y relampagueo
repetidas veces.
Habia nevado mucho.
No llueve tanto.
it will freeze presently.
It has drizzled a little.
It thundered and lightened
repeatedly yesterday.
It had snowed much.
It does not vain so much.
4. The following impersonal verbs are employed in
the third person singular and plural of every tense ;
viz. AcAECER, AooNTECER, and SucEDER, all three
signifying to happen. The first two are conjugated like
aborrecer, and the third is regular. Constar, to consist,
to be evidj>nt, and Antojarse, to fancy, are likewise re-
gular : Ex.
Acaecio esta mnnana.
Acontecieron esas desgracias
sin esperarlas.
Puede que le sucederdn
igiMiles chascos.
Constan esos papeles de
varies asuntos impor-
tantes.
Consta por lo que el dice.
Me consta k mi saberlo.
It happened this morning.
Those misfortunes hap*
pened without expecting
them.
Similar disappointments
may, perhaps, befall him.
Those papers consist of
various important sub-
jects.
It is evident from what he
says.
have
for
reasons (evidence)
knowing it.
LEOT. XXVI.]
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
225
Se me antojo ir con ellos. It took my fancy to go
with. them.
Se les antojan cosas muy They fancy very curious
raras, things.
5. There are also some verbs which do not belong to
the class of impersonal verbs, but which, are sometimes
employed as such — namely, ser, hacee, bastab, con-
VENIR, SUCEDER, PARECER, etc. : Ea.
It is late, it will be neces^
sary to go.
It must be done to-day.
It is not necessary to stay.
It is a month since I came.
It is fine weather, e7 is cold.
It is sufficient that you saj
80.
It ought to be done.
It happened as I thought.
It appears fh&t he knows it
JSs tarde, sera precise ir.
Es menester que se haga hoy.
No es necesario quedarse.
Hace un mes que vine.
Hace buen tiempo, hace frio.
Basta que Vmd. lo diga.
Conviene hacerlo.
Sucedio conforme lo pen-
saba.
Parece que lo sabe.
DEFECTIVE VEBRS.
6. The defective verbs, commonly in use in Spanish,
are Placer, to please ; Soler, to be wont ; Abolir, to
abolish ; Yacer, to lie ; Salve, and Vale.
Placer is used in the third person singular of the
following tenses and persons : —
Indie. Present, Pl^ce,
Imperfect. Placia,
Perfect. Pl6go, .
Sub. Present, Plegue, or plazga,
Imperfect. Pluguiera, or plu-
guiese,
Future. Plugui§re,
Imperative, Plegue,
It pleases.
It pleased.
It pleased.
It may please.
It should, might, or would
please.
If it should please.
May it please.
EXAMPLES.
Mucho me place,
Flegue a Dios que se salve.
Pluguiera k Dios que jamas
le hubieras visto.
It pleases me much.
God grant that he may be
saved.
Would to God that thou
hadst never seen him.
L 5
2,^6
AGREEMENT OP VERBS.
[lect. xxvn.
SOLER is
used only in the two following tenses : —
Indicative Present.
Imperfect.
Suelo,
I am wont.
Solia,
I was wont.
Bueles,
thou art wont.
solias,
thou wast wont.
Buele,
he is wont.
solia,
he was wont.
BolemoB,
we are wont.
soliamos,
we were wont.
Boleia,
you are wont.
soliais,
you were wont.
auelen,
they are wont.
Bolian,
they were wont.
Abolir, to abolish, is not employed in the present of
the indicative, the present and future subjunctive, nor
the imperative.
Of Yacer, only the third person singular and plural
of the present and imperfect of the indicative are now
in use, and generally in epitaphs; as, Aquiyace, or yacen
— Here lieth, or lie. Aqui yacia, or yacian — Here lay.
Formerly it was used in the sense of to repose, to rest,
generally, and conjugated throughout the entire verb.
Salve, and Vale, are only used in the second person
singular of the imperative of the Latin verbs salveo, and
valeo; the first denotes / hail thee, or God preserve thee;
and the second means, Farewell, or Adieu, They are
fieldom used now-a-days.
LECTURE XXVII.
AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIYE.
1. The verb agrees with its agent, or nominative case,
in number and person ; as, Yo leo y ella canta — I read
and she sings. El sol luce — The sun shines. Los drboles
crecen — The trees grow.
2. If the verb has a collective noun for its nominative,
the following rule should be observed. Collective nouns
definitey or those which denote a distinctive body of
objects, require the verb in the singular. But collective
nouns indefiyiite, or those which do not apply to any
definite number, or organized body, may have the verb
iu the plural: Ex.
LECT. XXVII.] AGREEMENT OP VERBS, 227
El egercito salio al amane- The army sallied out at day
cer. break.
Ungranwwmerodehombres A great number of men
fueron apresados. were taken prisoners.
3. When a verb has several nominatives connected
by the copulative conjunctive^, it agrees in number and
person with the pronoun understood, if it follows the sub-
jects; but if it precedes the subjects it is generally
made to agree in number and person with the nearest: Ex.
Mi hermana y el han salido. My sister and he are gone
out.
Tii y el sereis premiados. Thou and he will be re-
warded.
Nunca fue tan expuesto su Never was his valour and
valor y constancia. constancy so much ex-
posed.
Me ha gustado mucho la I was much pleased with
novelay los poemas. the novel and poems.
Me parecieron muy bien The letters and episode
escritas las cartas y el appeared to me to be
episodio. very well written.
4. If the nominatives be connected by any other con-
junction than y, the verb is frequently made to agree
with the last : Ex.
No solamente el, pero yo Not only does he, but I
tambien lo se. also know it.
No solamente yo, mas ellos Not only did I lose, but
tambien perdieron^ they lost also.
Or each nominative may have a separate verb ; as.
No solamente el lo sabe sino yo tambien lo se. No solamente
perdi yo, mas ellos tambien perdieron.
5. When there are two or more nominatives in a
sentence, of the same number and person, separated by
a disjunctive conjunction, the verb may agree with
either nominative; but if they differ in number or
person, each nominative must have a separate verb : Ex.
Ni el ni ella me conoce. Neither does he, nor she
know me.
0 e'l va, 6 voy yo. Either he goes, or I ^o.
Ni llama elia, ni llaman Neither does she, nor do
ellos, they calL
228 AGREEMENT OF VERB8. [lECT. XXVIl.
6. When two nouns are connected by the preposition
con (with), the verb which they govern may be put in
either number : Ex.
El Conde con eu secretario The Count with his secre-
partio, or partieron ayer. tary departed yesterday.
7. When the verb ser stands between two nomina-
tives of different numbers, it should be made to agree
with the one which is more properly its agent : Ex.
Los agradecimientos que The thanks that they gave
me dieron/M« censura. me was censure.
Los libros eran 8u diver- Books were his amusement,
sion.
8. When in English the pronoun lY, connected with
any part of the verb to be, refers to a noun or pronoun,
the verb always remains in the third person singular,
whatever may be the number or person of the noun or
pronoun referred to ; as, It is I who ; It was we that ;
It was the men that. Care must be taken, however,
in the translation, to make the verb to be agree in
number and person with the noun or pronoun referred
to: Ex.
Soi/ yo que lo digo. It is /who say so.
Somos nosotros que lo pedi- It is we that ask for it.
mos.
.firarne^/oslosquelohicieron. It was they that did it.
Fueron los hombres que vi- It was the men that came.
nieron.
9. A verb having a relative pronoun for its nomina-
tive, agrees with the word to which the relative refers :
Ex.
Yo que lo veo. I who see it.
Tu que los tragiste. Thou that broughtest them.
Aquellos que lo ereen se Those that believe it are
engaiian. deceived.
BXERCISE ON THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS
NOMINATIVE.
You and he consented to it. We and they were
consentir
appointed. The coach, gig, and horses belong to
nombrar coche calesa pertenecer
LKCT. XXVII.] AGREEMENT OF VEllBS. 229
him. Hep modesty and her virtueB were much extolled.
alabar
Herodotus was the first writer of profane history.
Herodoto escritor profane
Plato was a disciple of Socrates. The meeting is
Platon discipulo Socrates junta
dissolved. The regiment was defeated. A quantity
disolverse regimiento derrotar
of prisoners fled. An infinity of birds died. I dislike
prisionero huir. infinidad disgustarse
slander and quarrels. Terrible were his threats and
calumnia quimera amenaza
his vengeance. Never was his dignity and his pride
venganza dignidad orgullo
so humbled. It is not we, but they that must yield.
humUiado deber ceder
It is not they, but we that must yield. He that comes
first shall be rewarded. Those who know it say so. It
premiado saber
was Constantino who commanded that all the heathen
Constantino mandar gentil
temples should be destroyed. It was the Arabians that
templo destruirse Arabe
introduced the figures of arithmetic into Europe. It is
introducir figura aritmetica
those two houses that [are to be sold],
eetan per vender
230 OOVEHNMENT OP VEIIB3. [LECT. XXVIII.
LECTURE XXVIII.
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS.
1 . Active transitive verbs have the power of governing
other words. The regimen, or the word governed by
the verb, may be either a noun, a pronoun, or an
infinitive ; and it is sometimes preceded by a preposition,
and sometimes not ; and very frequently a different pre-
position is required in Spanish to the one used in
English, as we have seen is the case with prepositions
employed with adjectives. The choice of the prejiosition
depends chiefly on the meaning of the verb, and on the
direction of its action, "^o fixed rule can possibly be
given for a matter so mutable and unstable as this, and
what constant reading alone can render familiar to the
student. A few general rules, nevertheless, will here
be given, in order to point out such cases only wherein
the two languages frequently dififer in the choice of the
preposition required, and which will be of much assis-
tance to the learner. Previously to which, however, the
following examples, that have verbs accompanied by
prepositions different from those used in English with
the same verbs, have been extracted from the Grammar
OF THE Academy, and their translations in English
given as illustrations of the foregoing remarks.
Comprar a/, or del vende- To purchase of the seller.
dor.
Contestar a la pregunta. To answer the question
Pedir a alguno. To solicit any one.
Parecerse a otro. To resemble another.
ISalvar a alguno del peligro. To rescue any one from the
danger.
Armarse de paciencia. To arm oneself with pa-
tience.
Mantenerse de yerbas. To live ow herbs.
Depender de alguno. To depend on any one.
Uescuidarse de su obliga- To neglect one's duty.
ciou.
LECT. XXVIII.] GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 231
Prendarse de alguno. To be taken with any one.
Proveer de viveres. To provide with provisions.
Barar en tierra. To run aground.
Cavar la imaginacion en To fix the attention on any
alguno. one.
Contenerseensuobligacion. To hold to one's contract.
Estribar en alguna cosa. To rest on anything.
Saltar en tierra. To jump on shore.
Acertar con la casa. To hit upon the house.
Desposarse con alguno. To be betrothed to any one.
Encararse con alguno. To face any one.
Salir eon la pretension. To succeed in one's preten-
sion.
Asparse por alguna cosa. To be vexed at anything.
Atufarse por poco. To be afi'ronted at trifles,
Salir por fiador. To stand security.
Nacer para trabajos. To be born to troubles.
Prestar la dieta para la The diet to contribute to
salud. health.
2. Active transitive verbs in Spanish govern the word
to which their meaning is directed in the accusative
case, with or without the preposition d, as the occasion
may require. See observations on the employment of the
preposition a in the accusative case, Lect. 8, Par. 13 :
Ex.
Amar a Dies. To love God.
Hirio al hombre. He wounded the man.
Despreciar la mentira. To despise falsehood.
Ella le mando. She sent him.
Many neuter verbs have not the power of conveying
their meaning to another object, and have therefore no
government; such are nacer ^ to be born, crecer, to grow,
and all those in which there is no apparent action in
their meaning ; the action being confined to the nomi-
native. There are, however, some neuter verbs that
have an active signification, and convey their meaning
to another object by means of prepositions : Ex.
Ir d Madrid. To go to Madrid.
Vengo de casa. I come from home.
Sientese en el sofd. Be seated on the sofa.
232 GOVERNMENT OP VERBS. [lECT. XXVni.
Reflective verbs also govern their regimen in the accu-
sative case ; which regimen is the personal pronoun
annexed to them : Ex.
Se aman. They love one another.
Nos prometimos. We promised ourselves.
Estan vistiendos*. They are dressing themselves.
If to the reflective verb, there follow a noun, a pro-
noun, or an infinitive, these are generally preceded by
prepositions: Ex.
Se deshizo en Idgrimas. She melted into tears.
Me acordar^ de el. I will remember him.
Se acostumbran d trahajar. They accustom themselves
to work.
3. Verbs of ashing, thanking, buijing, taking away,
borrowing, opposing, and resembling, generally require d
before their indirect regimen : Ex.
Pregunte Vmd. al criado. Ask the servant.
Agradezco d Vmd. el favor. I thank you for the favour.
Comprelasortijaa^ joyero. I bought the ring of the
jeweller.
Quitaron el libro al mucha- They took away the book
cho. from the boy.
Pedi prestado el dinero d I borrowed the money of
Juan. John.
Se opuso d las ordenes. He opposed the orders.
El hijo se semeja al padre. The son resembles the
father.
The following require the same preposition before
the direct regimen — namely, verbs of answering, playing,
and suiting : Ex.
Responda Vmd. d mi pregunta. Answer my question.
Jugamos al ajedrez. "We played at chess.
^ Le conviene d Vmd. eso ? Does that suit you ?
4. Verbs denoting Julness or abundance, want, and
dependence, generally require de with their regimen : Ex.
Abundar de riquezas. To abound in riches.
Estaba llenando el haul de He was filling the trunk
vestidos y de libroe. with clothes and books.
Faltar de juicio. Tobe wantingin judgment.
Dependa Vmd. de mi Depend on me.
LECT. XXVIII.] GOVERNMENT OP VERBS. 233
Passive verbs likewise require de before the noun by
which they are followed : Ex.
Virginia fu6 amada de Virginia was beloved by
Pablo. PauL
Son aborrecidos de todos. They are hated by every
body.
Sometimes, however, the preposition de may be sub-
stituted by por ; but it must be observed that these two
prepositions are not always indiscriminately used with
passive verbs. If the verb denote an action of the body,
por should be employed ; as, Fue muerto por un asesino
— He was murdered by an assassin ; but if the action
expressed by the verb denote a will, or an effect of the
mind, then either de or por may be used ; though the
preference appears to be more generally given to the
former ; as, La obrafue' censurada de or por Zos criticos —
The work was censured by the critics. El es estimado
de or por todos — He is esteemed by everybody.
5. The noun or pronoun that denotes the person or
thing in which the meaning of the verb is concentrated
is preceded by en : Ex.
Piensaewtus propios asuntos. Think on your own affairs.
Fij ar la atencion en algo. To fix the attention on any-
thing.
If the regimen be an infinitive, the same preposition
is required ; as, Esmerarse en hacer algo — To delight in
doing anything.
6. The noun denoting the instrument with which the
action of the verb is effected, is governed by con ; but
the noun expressive of the injury inflicted by the instru-
ment is preceded by either de or con in the singular,
and by d in the plural : Ex.
La mato con un punal. Hekilled her with adagger.
La mato de, or con una He killed her by the thrust
punalada. of a dagger.
Le hirio d golpes. He woimdedhimwithblows
Verbs denoting conduct or behaviour also generally
require con before the regimen : Ex.
Se porta bien con los suyos. He behaves well with, or
towards his relations.
234 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. [lECT. XXVIII.
Para con may be used in the same sense ; as, Se porta
bien para con los sui/os.
The verb meterse governs the regimen with con, if it
be a person, and with euy if it be an inanimate object : Ex.
Meterse con alguno. To meddle with any one.
Meterse en negocios agenos. To interfere with other
people's business.
7. The regimen denoting the cause or motive that gives
rise to the action of the governing verb, is preceded by
j)or: Ex.
Trabajan por ganar. They work in order to gain.
Lo hice por miedo. I did it through fear.
Anhelar por saber. To be eager to know.
Para may be used instead of por, when we wish to
denote the end or purpose of the action expressed by the
governing verb : Ex.
Lo hice para salvarla. I did so in order to save her.
Vino para verle. He came for the purpose of
seeing him.
Sometimes the distinction between these two prepo-
sitions is so close that they may be indiscriminately used
with nearly the same effect ; thus, Trabajan por ganar,
means, They work for the sake of gain ; that is, they
were induced by the idea of gain to work; and Trabajan
para ganar, signifies, They work for the purpose of
gaining, or in order to gain.
Another peculiarity in the use of these two prepositions
is, that after the verb estar, or quedar, the infinitive go-
verned by por signifies that the action expressed by it is
not yet completed: as, Ese edificio estd todavia por
acabar — That edifice is not yet finished. Nos queda aun
una legua por andar — We have yet a league to walk.
The infinitive, preceded by por, also expresses an inclina-
tion on the part of the agent to do the act denoted by the
infinitive ; as, Estoy por decirselo — I have a mind to tell
it to him. But, preceded by para, the infinitive denotes
that the action is just about to take place ; as, El buque
esta para ponerse d la vela— The vessel is about to set
sail It sometimes also expresses the inclination, or the
capacity of the agent to do the act ; as. No estoy para
chancear — I am not inclined, or fit to joke.
LECT. XXVIII.] GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 235
To inquire after, or for any one, is translated pregun^
tar por ; as, Pregunte por su hijo — I inquired after his
son.
Observe that when the preposition is suppressed in
English, it must be expressed in Spanish ; as, Preste el
libro a Henrique — I lent {to) Henry the book. Di un
dura a] homhre — I gave {to) the man a dollar.
See also Employment and Government of Preposi-
tions, Lect. 30.
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS AS RELATES TO MOODS AND
TENSES.
8. A verb active transitive may govern another verb
either in the infinitive, the indicative, or the subjunctive
mood. But as the governed verb is not always put in
the same mood and tense in Spanish and English, the
student's attention is called to the following observa-
tions, which are intended to point out, in most cases,
the difference that in this respect exists in the two lan-
guages. He will, however, observe that they do not
apply in every case, this being likewise a matter that
is in a great measure governed by taste. They will,
nevertheless, assist him very materially.
1st. In Spanish the governed verb is frequently put
in the infinitive when there is but one agent to both
verbs ; that is, when the verb governed expresses some-
thing relative to the nominative of the governing verb ;
or when the governed verb is not preceded by the con-
junction que : Ex.
El pretendia fingir. He pretended to feign.
Querian enganarle. They wanted to deceive him.
Yo no puedo exponerle. I cannot expose him.
2nd. In these examples we see that both languages
agree in the employment of the infinitive with the go-
verned verb. But when the second verb is preceded
by the conjunction que, or that each verb has a different
agent, the governed verb in Spanish is generally put
either in the indicative or the subjunctive mood, as the
occasion may require : Ex.
Ellos se creen que son va- They believe themselves to
lientes. be brave.
236 OOVERNMENT OF VERBS. [LECT. XXVm.
El queria que yo me some' He wished me to submit.
tiese.
Mand6 que (ellos) tragesen He ordered them to bring
vino. wine.
Me parece que (ella) estd She appears to me to 5« ilL
enferma.
Literally, They think that they are brave. He wished
that I should submit. He ordered that they might bring
wine. It appears to me that she is ill.
Here we see that the governed verb in Spanish is
put in one of the tenses of the indicative or subjunc-
tive mood, while in either case it may remain in the
infinitive in English. The placing of the governed verb
in Spanish in one or the other mood is not a matter of
indifference, but one which mostly depends on the na-
tui*e of the governing verb, and not unfrequently on
choice, as will be noticed presently.
These rules extend also to intransitive verbs, the sig-
nification of which does not pass over to the governed
verb without the assistance of a preposition : Ex.
Vendre a arreglar con I will come and settle with
Vmd. you.
Nacemos para morir. We are bom to die.
Me quedare aqui para que I shall remain here that
el me vea. he may see me.
3rd. We have seen that the infinitive is sometimee
preceded in Spanish by a preposition and sometimes not ;
this also depends on the nature of the governing verb.
We will now see what verbs govern infinitives with
prepositions, and what prepositions they govern with.
The following verbs generally govern infinitives with
d ; namely, acostumbrarse, to accustom oneself ; aprender^
to learn ; air ever se, to venture, to dare ; ayudar, to help ;
convidar, to invite ; considerarse obligndo, to consider
oneself obliged ; disponerse, to prepare oneself; empezar^
to begin ; ensenar^ to teach ; exortar, to exhort; ponerse, to
set about ; and also verbs of movement to any place : Ex.
Me acostumbro a andar. I accustom myself to walk.
Aprenden a leer. They leai-n to read.
LECT. XXVIII.] GOVERNMENT OP VERBS. 237
No se atreve a exponerse. He does not venture to ex-
pose himself.
Ayudeme a vestir. Assist me to dress myself.
Le convid^ a comer. I invited him to dine.
Me considero obligado d I consider myself obliged
obedecer. to obey.
Nos dispusimos a trabajar. We set about to work.
Empiezo a entenderlo. I begin to understand it.
Me enseno a dibujar. He taught me do draw.
Exortar a alguno a hacer To exhort any one to do
su debar. his duty.
Se pusieron d renir. They set about quarrelling.
Voy d encontrarlos. I am going to meet them,
Vengo d informar 4 Vmd. I come to inform you.
Several reflective verbs also govern infinitives with a,
when the latter indicate what has produced the effect
implied in the governing verb : Ex.
Matarse d estudiar. To kill oneself with study-
ing.
Cansarse a trabajar. To tire oneself with work-
ing.
The same preposition is sometimes put between two
infinitives, to mark the distinction in the respective
meanings of their actions : Ex.
Ya mucho de decir a hacer. There is a great difference
between saying and doing.
The verbs acabar, to finish, and cesar, to cease, govern
infinitives with de : Ex.
^Acabo Ymd. de escribir? Have you finished writing?
Cesaron de perseguirle. They ceased persecuting
him.
Tener and hacer govern infinitives with de, when a
noun intervenes between them : Ex.
Tuvo la bondad de venir. He had the kindness to
come.
Hdgame Ymd. el favor de Do me the favour to give
darme. me.
Infinitives are governed by con, when they express
the manner how, and the means by which anything is
obtained : Ex.
238 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. [lECT. XXVIH
El saber se logra con estu- Knowledge is obtained by
diar. study.
Nada se gana con enfadarse. We gain nothing by being
angry.
Infinitives are governed by en, when they do not
express any kind of motion : Ex.
Se ocupa en leer. He occupies himself in
reading.
Se esmera en hablar bien. He delights in speaking
well.
Sohre and tras^ when used in the sense of besides,
govern infinitives: Ex.
Sobrfi, or tras ser rico es Besides being rich he is
muy avaro. very parsimonious.
For infinitives governed by para and por, see Par. 7.
Some Spanish reflective verbs govern infinitives in
the active voice, when the passive would be used in
English: Ex.
Me deje engaiiar de ^1. I allowed myself to be de-
ceived by him.
Se hizo oir de ellos. He caused himself to be
heard by them.
4th. It hast just been noticed in Obs. 2nd, that when
the governing verb has a difi'erent agent from the verb
governed, the latter is placed either in the indicative or
the subjunctive mood, as the occasion may require; this
also sometimes occurs when both verbs have the same
agent. Rules will now be given to direct the learner in
what mood and tense to employ the governed verb.
5th. The following verbs generally govern their regi-
men in the subjunctive mood — namely, verbs of com-
mandingj requesting, fearing^ wishing, wondering, doubting^
permitting, requiring, preventing, persuading, suiting, and
sometimes those of thinking, believing, rejoicing, and
hoping ; likewise impersonal verbs, and those verbs pre-
ceded by conjunctions expressive oi doubt, wish, supposi-
tion, or uncertainty, as noticed in Lect. 20, Par. 22.
6th. Verbs in the present, or future indicative, or the
present subjunctive, govern their regimen in the present
subjunctive, simple or compound : Ex.
LECT. XXVIH."! GOVERNMENT OF VEEBS.
Manda que se haga luego.
Suplicn que me dispense
Vmd.
Q-ue yo tema que me insulte.
He orders it to be done im-
mediately.
I beg you will excuse me.
That I may fear he might
insult me.
que lo haya I am glad that he has over-
come it.
I doubt that he is able to
succeed.
It is proper that they should
know.
I hope you may be amused.
That I should wish him to
obey me.
I wonder that they should
have believed it.
It is necessary that it should
disappear.
The verb that follows the relative que, preceded by a
superlative, is also sometimes put in the subjunctive in
Spanish ; as, Es la idea mas sublime que conozca — It is
the most sublime idea that I know of.
7th. Verbs in any of the past tenses, simple or com-
pound, of the indicative or subjunctive, or in the compound
future of the indicative, have generally their regimen in
the imperfect of the subjunctive^ simple or compound, with
the termination ra or se : Ex.
Me alegro
vencido.
Dudo que pueda conseguir.
Conviene que sepan.
Deseare'qiie Vmd. se divierta.
Para que yo desee que ^1 me
obedezca.
Me maravillo que lo hayan
creido.
Es preciso que desaparezca.
Dudaba, or dude que le
convinciese, or que le hu-
biera convencido.
Ha mandado que lo llevarOf
or llevase Vmd.
Habia pedido que no lo
digeramoSf or digesemos.
Me alegrara que lo hubiera
hecho.
Le habria ordenado que vol-
viera, or volviese.
Les habrd permitido que le
siguieran, or siguiesen.
I doubted that he would
convince him, or that he
would have convinced him.
He has ordered that you
should carry it.
He had requested that we
might not tell it.
I would rejoice that he had
done it.
I would have ordered him
to return.
Perhaps he may have allow-
ed them to follow him.
240
GOVERNMENT OP VERBS. [lECT. XXVIH.
The compound of the present, and compound of the
future indicative, however, may also govern their regimen
in the present of the subjunctive ; as, Ha mandado que lo
Ueve Vmd. Les hahrd permitido que le sigan.
8th. Generally speaking, in any case where the verb
governed expresses a will or inclination, it is used with
the termination ria : Ex.
He promised that he would
answer me.
I thou ght he would not come
She had promised that she
would sing.
I should have thought that
they would live happily,
9th. Verbs, however, of declaring or saying, thinking
or believing, in any of the tenses of the indicative or sub-
junctive, may govern their regimen with the conjunction
que, in the same mood and tense in both languages : Ex.
Prometiu queme contestaria.
Crei que no vendria.
Habia prometido que can'
taria.
Hubiera creido que vivirian
f el ices.
Declare que lo se, lo supe,
lo habia sabido, lo sabria,
etc.
Si digere que no puede, no
pudo, no pudiere, etc.,
pagar.
Pensaba que Vmd. no
tardaria; que no habia
tardado, etc.
Creo que ni la ha visto, ni
desea verla.
I declare that I know it,
knew it, had known it,
would know it, etc.
If he should say that he is
not, was not, should not
be, etc., able to pay.
I thought that you would
not be late ; that you had
not been late, etc.
I believe that he neither
has seen, nor wishes to
see her.
Note. — The rules which have been given for verbs
governing with certain prepositions, will, in many cases,
extend to the same verbs when they govern the indica-
tive or the subjunctive mood with a conjunction (see
Observation 3rd) : Ex.
Ten go miedo de que no lo
hayan sabido.
Se empeSo en que se lo
prestara.
Le ensenaron a que fingiese
mil escusas.
I fear that they may not
have known it.
He insisted on my lending
it to him.
They taught him to feign a
thousand excuses.
tECT. XXVHI.] GOVERNMENT OF VEEBS. 241
PECULIAR MANNER OF EMPLOYING CERTAIN VERBS.
9. AcABAR DE. — The expressions, to have just, and to
he just, employed in English before a past participle, are
rendered in Spanish by acahar de, preceding an infinitive •
as, Acabo de oir de su ilegada — I have jnst heard of his
arrivaL Acaba de entrar — He is just come in.
Alegrarse. — The verbs to be glad, and to be rejoiced at,
are translated by the reflective verb alegrarse ; as, Me
ahgro de saberlo — I am glad to know it. Se alegro de la
noticia — He was rejoiced at the news.
Sentir and Pesar. — To he sorry, and to grieve, are
translated by these verbs ; as, Lo siento mucho — I am
very sorry for it {i.e., I feel it much). Me pesa mucho
saberlo. — I am verry sorry to know it {Le., It grieves me
much to know it).
Caber, to he capable of containing, etc. This verb is
employed in difi'erent manners in Spanish ; as, Cudntas
personas caben en este salon 1 — How many persons does
this saloon contain, or is it capable of containing? No
cabiamos todos en la cdmara — The cabin could not con-
tain us all. iPuede caber eso en tu imaginacion? — Can
that enter thy imagination ? Cabe mucho en este haul —
This trunk holds a great deal. Caber de pies — To have
room to stand. Cabe mucha malicia en el — He harbours
much malice. Tal es lo que a mt me cupo en suerte —
Such has fallen to my lot. No caber en si — To be well
satisfied with oneself. No caber de gozo — To be over-
joyed.
Caer, to fall, is sometimes employed in the sense of
to look into, in the following manner : JEstas ventanas caen
at corral — These windows look into the court-yard.
When to become is employed with reference to any
part of a person's dress, it is translated caer, or sentar;
as, Este vestido le cae, or, le sienta muy hien — This dress
becomes you very well.
Caerengracia, means to tdkeone^s fancy; as, Parect
que esa seiiora le ha caido a Vmd. en gracia — It seems
that that lady has taken your fancy.
Dar, to give, is employed with different meanings ; as ,
J)ar en el bianco — To hit the aim. Dar el pe'same — To
248 GOVERNMENT OP YEBBS. [lECT. XXVm.
condole. Bar que hacer — To give trouble. Darae a la
vela — To set sail.
Darse de, and darse cttidado, are used in the sense
of to care about ; as, Que' sele da d Vmd, de eso ? — What
do you care about that ? No se me da cuidado de nada —
I care about nothing.
Dar por supuesto, means to tahe for granted ; as, Di
por supuesto que ya no volveria — I took it for granted that
he would not return.
Dejar de, before infinitives, means to fail, and to
leave off; as, iVb deje Fmd. de hacerlo — Do not fail to do
it. Dejemos de hahlar mas del asunto — Let us leave off
speaking on the subject.
EcHAR, to throw, is used with various meanings ; as,
Echar a perder — To spoil. Uchar a pique un nav'io — To
sink a ship. Echar en olvido — To forget.
Echar m^nos, means to miss {i.e., to be sensible of the
absence of); as, Acd echo menos mis acostumhradas diver-
siones — Here I miss my accustomed amusements. Le
eche a Vmd. menos en el baile — I missed you at the ball.
Echar de ver, means to he evident, or visible ; as, Se
echa de ver en eso la prudencia de Vmd. — Your prudence
is evident, or visible, or shows itself in that.
Echar k perder, means to spoil ; as, Todo lo echan a
perder — They spoil every thing. Asi se echard a perder
— It will get spoiled in that manner.
EsTAR en que, signifies to be inclined to thinh; as,
Estoy en que no vendrd hoy — I am inclined to think that
she will not come to-day.
EsTAR A PiQTjE DE, meaus to he within an ace of; as,
Estuvimos d pique de perdemos — We were within an ace
of being lost.
Faltar DE, before an infinitive, means to fail; as,
Falto de venir dos veces — He failed twice to come.
GuARDARSE DE, before an infinitive, signifies to tahe
care not to ; as, Se guardard muy bien de venir — He will
take good care not to come. Meguardarede decirlenada
—I will take care not to say anything to him.
GusTAR, to like, and Faltar, to want, have a peculiar
regimen in Spanish, inasmuch as the objective case of the
corresponding verb in English becomes the nominative in
Spanish, and the nominative of the English verb become*
LECT. XXYIIl] government OF VERBS, 243
the objective in Spanish ; as, Me gustan los libros — ^I like
books. ^Le gusta a Vmd. este vino? Do you like this
wine ? I Que les falta ? What do they require ? Les
faltan muchas cosas — They require many things. Hacer
falta may be used in the place of/altar; as, Que les hace
falta ? Les hacen falta muchas cosas.
The verb Gustar, however, sometimes retains the
same kind of regimen as in English, only that the ob-
ject of the verb is preceded by de ; as, Zos porfados
siempre gustan de quiiiieras — Obstinate people are always
fond of disputes.
Hacer, to do, to make, is employed in various collo-
quial phrases ; as, Mare por verle — I will try or endea-
vour to see him. Hacer caso de lo que dicen otros — To
mind what other people say. Sacerse a la vela — To set
sail. Hacer castillos en el aire, or torres en el viento — To
build castles in the air. Se hace muy soherbio — He be-
comes very proud. Quien hizo elpapel de gracioso ? — Who
acted the part of clown ? El hacia de consul — He acted
as consul.
Ie, to go, is also employed in several familiar phrases ;
as, Ir con alguno — To agree with any one. Ir, or que-
dar en zaga — To remain behind hand. Irse a pique — To
founder at sea. Irsele de la memoria a alguno — To escape
one's memory.
Llevab, to take, to carry, has several idiom atical
meanings ; as, Llevar a mal — To take amiss. Me llevo
dos durospor la compostura — He charged me two dollars
for the repair, Llevaha una casaca a la francesa — He
wore a coat in the French fashion. Llevarse chasco —
To be disappointed. Me lleve chasco en eso — I was dis-
appointed in that.
Mandar and Hacer, both signify to order, and to
cause to be done ; as, Mande que me tragesen vino — I or-
dered them to bring me wine. Hare que sepa su deher —
I will make him know his duty. Mande (or ordene) que
me hiciese un vestido — I ordered him to make me a dress.
Oler a, is to smell of, and Saber k, to taste of ; as,
Esto huele a aceite y sale a sebo — This smells of oil, and
tastes of tallow.
Salir is employed in various ways ; as, Salir d luz —
To come to light ; to be published. Salir con algo — To
244' GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. [lECT. XXVIH.
obtain one's end. Salir de si — To be enraptured. Saiga,
to que saliere — Happen what may. Esta cma me sale en
mas de mil lihras — This house stands me in more than
a thousand pounds.
Servirse is used in the third person only in the sense
oito be pleased to ; as, S'lrvase Vmd. hacerme estefavor-^
Bo pleased to do me this favour. Se sirvio enviarme este
regalo — He was pleased to send me this present.
Tardar en, before auMnfinitive, means to be long in
doing any thing ; as, tarda mucho en decidir — He is long
in deciding. Cudnto tarda en venir! — How long he is
in coming.
Tener, to have, is variously employed ; as, Tener d
menos hablar con uno — Not to deign to speak to one. No
tiene que ver con In que yo digo — It has nothing to do with
what I say. Tiene Vmd. razon — You are right. El no
tiene razon — He is wrong.
VoLVER, to returny expresses the repetition of the
action denoted by the governed infinitive, as, Vuelva
Vmd. a leerlo — Read it over again. Volvere a venir
maiiana — I shall come again to-morrow.
Tratar de, means to endeavour to; as, Trate Vmd. de
venir mas temprano — Endeavour to come earlier. Tratare
de hallarlo — I shall endeavour to find it.
[For further idioms in verbs, see the Author's " Guide
to Spanish and English Conversation.*']
EXERCISE ON THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS.
Courage often overcomes those difficulties that
brio [muchas voces] veneer dificultad
cause the weak to [give way]. Ask counsel of thy
hacer flojo desmayar pedir consejo
friend. I am very thankful for your attention. We
reconocido
purchased our goods of a very respectable merchant,
comprar genero negociante
We should deprive no one of his own. Of whom did
privar
you borrow the money? He resembles his
[pedir prestadoj semejarse
LECT. XXVIII.] GOVERNMENT OF VEEBS. 245
sister. It concerns you to know that you incur
importar incurrir
danger in opposing the laws of the state. I am going to
peligro oponerse
answer this letter whilst you play a game at billiards,
contestar mientras jugar partida billar, s.
Will this suit your brother ? The room is filled
convenir cuarto lleno
with smoke. Never depend entirely on others,
humo jamas depender enteramente
I remember well the past. We must not neglect our
acordarse pasado descuidar
duty. Knowledge is gained by study. Adonis was
deber saber lograr estudio Adonis
beloved by Venus and by Proserpina. They were
Venus
impelled by necessity. It is very difficult to possess
impeler necesidad dificultoso tener
moderation in prosperity. Behave kindly towards
prosperidad portarse benignamente
everybody. I am going for him, that he may conclude
concluir
the business, since there remains but little to finish. I
asunto quedar
have a mind to go and see if he is ready to leave. We
partir
ought to yield to circumstances. I do not pretend
ceder circunstancia pretender
to sacrifice your interests. I wish you may obtain your
sacrificar interes lograr
end. They advise me to wait. I repented of
aconsejar aguardar arrepentirse
having taken such a step. I began to understand
paso empezar comprender
French before I learned to read it. I accustom
antes que aprender acostumbrarse
246 GovERXMEirr or verbs, [lect. xxviii.
myself to do now what I once did not dare to do.
atreverse
Assist me to carry this. He went to see if he could
ayudar Uevar
teach him to sing. If he should invite me to dine
enseiiar convidar comer
with him, I shall consider myself obliged to go.
considerar obligado
Preparing myself to submit, I sat down to weep
disponerse someter ponerse * llorar
bitterly. We have finished writing. At last he
amargamente acabar
ceased tormenting me. Have the goodness to teU me.
cesar atormentar bondad
He did me the favour to accompany me. Little is
acompanar
obtained by fretting. I amuse myself in looking ^^
lograr afligirse divertirse mirar
the pictures. He caused himself to be respected by his
pintura hacerse respetar
acquaintances. I beseech you to remain. I hope
conocido suplicar quedarse desear
you may soon recover your health. He must behave
recobrar salud portarse
better in order that I may wish him to come back.
I feared he might have suspected me. I had wished
temer desear
that they had deserved it. I never would have permitted
merecer consentir
it to be known. Perhaps he may have told biTn to bring
saber quiza
them. If he thinks that I want him. They declared
that they would not trust him. I would have believed
fiar
it impossible that he coidd have acted in this manner.
obrar manera
LECT. XXIX.]
IDYEBBS.
247
LECTURE XXIX.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF ADVERBS.
1. Adverbs are either simple or compound. Those
which constitute but one word are simple, and the com-
pound are formed by the addition of one or more syl-
lables to the adverb in its simple form, or they consist of
more than one word. Thus, mas, more, meaos, less, are
simple; and ademas, besides, aszmismo, in the same
manner, para siempre, for ever, are compound.
The following is a classified list of Spanish adverbs; —
ADVERBS OF PLACE.
Donde,
Where.
hacia adelante, forwards.
adonde,
whither.
hacia arriba
, upwards.
de donde.
whence.
hacia abajo,
downwards.
aqui,
here.
arriba,
above.
aca,
hither.
abajo,
below.
ahi.
there.
debajo.
under.
alii,
thithei^.
por debajo,
underneath.
alld, aculla,
yonder.
delante,
before.
de aqui,
hence.
detras,
behind.
de alii,
thence.
alrededor.
around.
dentro.
within.
aparte,
aside.
fuera,
out.
cerca,
near.
;3or fuera.
■without.
lejos,
far.
!iasta,
till, even.
al lado de,
by the side of,
hacia.
towards.
junto,
f next,
( adjoining.
hacia aqui,
towards here.
hacia alii,
towards there.
enfrente,
facing.
hacia atras,
backwards.
encima,
upon.
ADVEEBS
OF TIME.
Ahora,
Now.
ahora mismo, just now.
6ntes,
before.
mucho ha.
long since.
despues,
after,
afterwards.
poco ha,
mientras.
lately,
whilst
248
ADVERBS.
[lECT. XXIX.
entonces,
manana,
ayer,
anoche,
anteayer,
luego,
then.
to-day.
to-morrow.
yesterday.
last night.
the day before
yesterday,
j presently,
( soon, then,
nunca, jamas, never,
tarde, late,
temprano, early,
siemi^re, always, ever,
para siempre, for ever,
ya, already, now.
amenudo, often,
presto, quickly,
euando, when,
asi que, as soon as.
°" ^'«''' \ hardly.
apenas, ) *'
hasta, tiU, until,
hasta euando, until when,
pronto, soon,
antiguamente, anciently.
anteriormente, formerly,
recientemente, recently.
frecuente-
mente,
en hreve,
desde,
desde euando,
desde enton-
ces,
hasta aqui,
hasta ahora,
aun, todavia,
entretanto
■ I
casi sierapre,
casi nunca,
una vez,
dos veces,
tres veces,
rara vez,
otra vez,
de nuevo,
frequently.
shortly,
since.
since when,
since then.
hitherto,
till now.
yet.
meanwhile,
whilst.
almost always,
never hardly,
once,
twice.
three times,
seldom,
another time,
gain.
algunas veces, sometimes,
aun no, not yet
ADVEEBS OF QUALITY AlTD MANNER.
Bien,
buenamente,
mal,
malamente,
admirable-
mente,
mejor,
peor,
cuan,
asi,
asi asi,
asimismo,
conque,
WeU.
I badly,
admirably.
better.
worse.
how.
thus, so.
so, so.
in the same
manner,
so, therefore.
como, like, how, as,
despacio, slowly.
fuertemente, j ^ ^'
aprisa,aprie- ^^^^.^
8a,depri8a, ^^.fj;
de priesa, j *^
presto, quickly,
exactamente, exactly.
:n''alta.oJ^-^>y-
bajo, lowly,
fdcilmente, easily,
sabiamente, wisely.
LECT. XXIX.]
ADVEEBS.
249
justamente, justly,
lindamente, neatly,
abler tamentejopenly.
inj ustamente, wrongfully,
temeraria- rashly.
mente,
enteramente, entirely,
voluntaria- voluntarily.
mente,
negligente- negligently.
mente,
directamente, directly.
mente, J ^speciaUy.
quedo, softly, quietly.
ADVEEBS OF OEDEB.
Primera- Firstly.
mente,
eegunda- secondly.
mente,
terceramente, thirdly,
en seguida, next,
finalmente, finally,
liltimamente, lastly,
al fin, al cabo,at the end.
por ultimo, at last.
juntamente, together,
ordenada- orderly.
mente,
totalmente, totally.
alreves, (toP«y-t^y.
al contrario,
antes,
despues,
Ion the con-
trary,
before,
after.
ADVEEBS OF QXTANTITY AND COMPAEISON.
Poco,
mucho,
bastante,
harto,
mas,
menos,
ademas,
demas,
demasiado,
casi,
apenas.
Little,
much,
enough,
sufficiently,
more,
less,
besides,
moreover,
over and
above,
too, too much,
almost,
scarcely.
en parte,
enteramente,
por mitades,
tan, asi,
tanto,
muy,
cuanto, j
tanto como,
cerca,
peor,
mejor,
ADVEEBS OF D0T7BT.
Qaizd, acaso. Perhaps,
por Ventura, perchance,
antes, )
dntes bien, )
ratner.
probable-
mente.
partly.
entirely.
by halves.
so.
so much.
very.
as much,
how much.
as much as.
nearly, almost.
worse.
better.
probably.
x6
250
ADVEBBS.
[lect. xxrx.
ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
too, also,
likewise.
moreover,
besides.
furthermore,
besides.
no.
nothing.
neither.
by no means.
2. In addition to the foregoing adverbs, an indefinite
number of adverbial expressions may beformed, of which
the following are a few specimens : —
Si,
Yes.
tambien,
cierto,
truly.
asimismo.
ciertamente,
certainly.
ademas,
aun,
even.
verdadera-
indeed, truly.
otrosi,
mente,
sin duda,
without doubt.
no.
realmente,
really.
nada,
indubitable-
undoubtedly.
tampoco.
mente,
de ningun
en verdad,
in truth.
modo,
de veras,
indeed.
esta manana,
esta tarde,
esta noche,
ayer tarde,
pasado manana,
manana por la manana,
k la tarde,
de cuando en cuando,
de aqui en adelante,
demasiado presto,
poco d poco
A manos llenas,
a toda prisa,
de buena gana,
de mala gana,
con intencion,
a la mano,
& la espanola,
d la inglesa,
a caballo,
cuanto antes,
en cuanto a,
lo demas,
los demas,
This morning.
this afternoon.
to-night.
yesterday afternoon.
after to-morrow.
to-morrow morning,
in the evening.
now and then.
henceforth.
too soon.
little by little.
plentifully, by handfulfl.
with all speed.
willingly.
unwillingly.
on purpose.
at hand.
in the Spanish fashion.
in the English fashion.
on horseback.
as soon as possible.
with regard to.
the rest (of it).
the rest (of them).
LEC3T.
XXIX.]
ADVEBBS.
251
Note, — Several adverbs of time require tlie con-
junction que after tliem when followed by a verb either
in the indicative or subjunctive mood; namely, dntenf
desde, despues, entretanto, hasta, luego, mientras : Ex.
Antes que lo supe^ or su- Before I knew it.
Before they (may) know it.
Since I came.
After I said it.
After they (may) say it.
"Whilst they read.
Until he died.
Until he die.
As soon as I did it.
As soon as they should do it
Whilst they played.
Whilst he comes.
^ piera.
Antes que lo sepan.
Desde que vine.
Despues que lo dige.
Despues que lo digan.
Entretanto que leen 6 lean.
Hasta que murio.
Hasta que muera.
Luego que lo hice.
Luego que lo Meier an.
Mientras que ellos jugaban.
Mientras que 61 venga.
The placing of the verb in the indicative or sub-
junctive mood in Spanish, when in the past tense,
appears in many cases to be a matter of choice, since
we may either say, Fui alia antes que supe de su llegada,
or, antes que supiera de su llegada — I went there before
I knew of his arrival. No lo supe hasta algun tiempo
despues que me lo digeron or digesen — I did not know it
until some time after they told me of it.
Antes and despues require the preposition de^ when
followed by an infinitive; as. Antes de salir — Before
going out. Despues de escribir — After writing.
For adverbs governed by certain prepositions, see
Lect. 30, Pae. 33 to 39.
OF ADVERBS ENDING IN MENTE.
3. Adverbs terminating in mente for the most part
denote manner , though they sometimes denote affirma-
tion, order, time, etc. : Ex.
Habla elegantemente. He speaks elegantly.
Me recibio cortesmente. She received me courteously.
Se cansara ciertamente. He will certainly tire himself.
Anteriormente era asi. Formerly it was so.
252 ADVERBS. [lECT. XXIX.
This class of adverbs is generally formed from adjec-
tives, by adding 7nente to the feminine termination of
adjectives that have two terminations, and to the
common termination of those that have but one ; as from
sabio, wise, is formed sabiamente, wisely ; from caro, dear,
caramente, dearly ; from fdcil, easy, fdcilmente, easily.
Most of the English adverbs ending in ly, terminate
in mente in Spanish. The greater part of these adverbs
may be expressed with the preposition con and a substan-
tive, instead of the adjective with the termination mente ;
thus, instead of fdcilmente, we may say con faciiidud ;
instead of sabtamente, con sabiduna ; and so forth.
When several adverbs formed from adjectives follow
each other in succession, the termination mente is
retained only with the last : Ex.
Ciceron hablo sabia y elo- Cicero spoke wisely and
cuentemente. eloquently.
Cesar escribio clara, concisa Caesar wrote clearly, con-
y elegantemente. — ^Gram- cisely, and elegantly.
MAR OF THE ACADEMY.)
4. As adverbs that end in mente sometimes denote
manner J at others order, time, etc., in a like manner do
many other adverbs belong to more than one class; for
instance, Juego and desjmes are adverbs of time, when we
say, Liiego vcndre — I will soon come. Ire desjmes — I will
go afterwards ; but they are adverbs of place and order
in the following phrase : JSl padre iha primero, despues
la madre, y luego los hijos — The father went first, then
the mother, and next the children.
5- Adverbs are subject to degrees of comparison like
adjectives, and have the same irregularities as those
adjectives have from which they are derived : thus, from
velozmente, swiftly, are formed mas, or menos velozmentCf
more or less swiftly; muy velozmente, or velocisimamente,
very swiftly ; from amablemente, amiably, mas aniable-
mente, more amiably ; muy amablemente, or amahilisima"
mente, very, or most amiably ; from hien, or buenamente,
well, mas bien, or mejor, better, mut/ bien, or opiimamerifey
very well, etc. See Lecture 11, Par. 16 to 28.
6. When sz and ?io are employed as objective cases to a
verb, they are preceded by the conjunction que; but when
LECT. XXIX."1 ADVERBS. 1253
preceded by an article, tlie conjunction is dispensed
with: Ex.
Yd digo que si; €\ dice que I say yes ; he says no.
no.
No le di ni un siy ni un no. I made him no reply what-
soever.
7. Adverbs are sometimes used in the place of adjec-
tives, and vice versa. When used as adjectives, they are
made to agree with the noun to which they refer, but
not otherwise ; Ex.
Esta agun es muy clara. This water is very clear.
Hahle Vmd. mas claro. Speak more clearly.
The following are some words of this double signifi-
cation— viz,, bajo, low, lowly ; alto^ high, highly ; recioy
strong, strongly; mal, bad, badly.
8. There are also some adverbs that are occasionally
employed as nouns ; in such cases they must be treated
as nouns : Ex.
Es necesario precaver d It is necessary to guard
mal. against the evil.
Que se contente cada cual Let every one be contented
con su poco 6 su mucho. with the little or the
much that he has.
BITUATIOir or THE ADVERB,
9. With regard to the situation of the adverb in a
sentence, no rule can be given but what would be subject
to many exceptions. It is a matter that depends much on
taste : however, when no particular emphasis is intended
to be laid on the adverb, it generally follows the verb,
and precedes other parts of speech ; and for energy, or
elegance, it frequently changes its situation. Neverthe-
less, the strength of the adverb depends very much on its
position in a sentence ; and the perspicuity of the con-
struction also demands care in the proper placing of the
adverb ; thus we must be guided according to the stress
we wish to lay on the adverb to give it a more or less
conspicuous position, taking care, however, to place it
where it shall not create ambiguity in the sentence.
254 ADVERBS. [lECT. XXIX.
OBSERVATIONS ON CERTAIN ADVERBS.
10. Aqui and acd. The first means here, and the
second hither; as, Aqui estd — Here it is. Ven acd^
Come hither.
Ilasta aqui means hitherto^ and de aqvi, hence ; as,
Hnsta aqui hemos vivido en paz — Hitherto we have lived
peaceably. De aqui esos males — Hence those evils.
He aqut, signifies behold, or here is ; as, He aqui mi
lolsa — Behold, or here is my purse.
A hi, allt, alld. A hi generally denotes a place not very
distant from the speaker : it also alludes to the place
where the person addressed is; as, Ahi estd mi casa —
There is my house. Ahi donde esta Vmd. — There where
you are. AlH and alld generally refer to a more distant
place than aUi ; as, Le deje alii — I left him there. A/Id
en aquellos paises — There, in those countries. Alld is
also equivalent to thither; as, Foy alld — I am going
thither.
iWas acd and mas alld are always accompanied by the
preposition de, when followed by another word. Mas
acd signifies on this side ; and mas alld, on that side, or
heyond ; as, Mas acd de Madrid — On this- side of
Madrid. Mas alld de los Alpes— On that side, or beyond
the Alps.
Ademas and demas. The first means besides and
moreover; as, Ademas de eso — Besides that. Ademas,
ya es tarde — Moreover, it is now too late. The second,
as an adverb, means either over and above, or useless ;
as, Cuantos hay demas f — How many are there over and
above? Es por demas — It is useless. As an adjective
and a substantive demas means the rest ; as, Lo demas
vendrd manana — The rest (of it) will come to-morrow.
Los demas de los escritos — The rest of the writings. Las
demas cartas — The rest of the letters.
Donde and adonde. The first signifies where, and the
second whither, or where to ; as, Donde estd ? Donde
Vmd. le dejo — Where is he? Where you left him.
Adonde ha ido 7 Adonde Vmd. le mando — W^hither is he
gone ? Where you sent him.
Jamas and nunca may be used indiscriminately j as,
tECT. XXIX.] ADVEKB9. 255
Jamas or nunca vt tal cosa — I never saw such a thing.
Nunca joined to jamas adds greater energy to the nega-
tion ; as, Nunca jamas vi tal cosa — Never did I see such
a thing.
Jamas is often used after the words por siempre, and
para siempre, for ever; then, instead of its negative
signification, it means eternally; as, Mt acordare de el
para siempre jamas — I will remember him all the days
of my life, or for ever. It is sometimes used alone
interrogatively, in the sense of ever ; as, ^ Ha visto
Vmd, jamas tal proceder ? — Did you ever see such
behaviour ?
No. This adverb does not always convey a negative
meaning ; on the contrary, it strengthens the affirmation
when used with comparatives, and renders the contrast
more striking; as, Mejor es el trahajo que no la
ociosidad — Labour is better than idleness. Mas vale
ayunar que no enfermccr — It is better to fast than to fall
iU. — (Grammar of the Academy.) The wo, however,
in such sentences is not absolutely required, since their
grammatical construction would be perfect without it. —
(See also Lect. 24, Par. 8.)
Ya. This adverb has a variety of significations, as
will be observed in the following examples : —
^Ha venido Ymd. ya $ Are you come already ?
Ya lo se. I already know it.
Ya vendr^ a verle. I'll soon come and see you.
Vaya Ymd. que ya yo ir^. Go you, I will go presently.
^Me entiende Vmd. ya ? Do you understand me wow;?
Si, ya le entiendo. Yes, now I understand you.
^Ha acabado ya de escribir ? Has he finished writing^ef.^
Ya no me quejo de mi suerte. I no longer complain of my
fate.
Ya lo sabra Ymd. You will know it by and hy.
Ya quiere esto, ya aqueUo. Sometimes he wants this,
sometimes that.
Ir^, ya que Ymd . lo manda. I will go, since you desire it.
Ya sea por esto, ya por Whether it be for this, or
aquello. for that.
7 a no le ver6 mas. I shall never see him again.
Ya se ve. It is evident. Of course.
256 ADVEEBS. [lECT. XXIX.
EXERCISE ON ADVERBS.
He Beldom comes but when it is too late. Carry tliis
verdr sino llevar
first, and then that. Come and see me now and then.
We generally dine early. He was already at home,
comer en casa
Write to me soon. Have you breakfasted already ? Yes,
desayunar
I have quite finished. The horse runs swiftly. This is
acabar veloz
done easily. She dances elegantly,and plays wonderfully,
bailar marvilloso
He behaved nobly and generously. He spoke distinctly
portarse distinto
and wisely. Some say yes, and some say no. Mildness
dulzura
governs better than anger. I would assist you
regir colera
willingly if I could. Where is your brother ?
[de buena gana]
Here he is. Let him come hither. I am going there
with him. Put it there, where you are. I have never
Been him. I will love her for ever. I will go, since
there is no remedy. I did not do it on purpose. He
dresses in the French fashion, and rides on horseback
vestir montar d caballo
every day. Hitherto we have never quarrelled. Hence
renir
those discords and dissensions. It is on this side of
discordia
Valladolid, and on the other side of the river. Where is
rio
he, and where is he going to ?
LBCT XXX.]
r&£POSlXIONAi
d57
LECTURE XXX.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS.
1. Prepositions are of two kinds — namely, such, aa
only have meaning in composition with other words; as
in-mortal, aibB-tracto, sn-poner, etc. (immortal, abstract,
to suppose, etc.), and such as have meaning both by
themselves and in composition with other words j as the
following : —
A,
to, at.
ante,
before.
bajo,
under.
con,
with.
contra
against.
de,
of, from.
desde,
since, from.
en,
in.
entre,
between.
hacia^
towards.
hasta.
till, as far as, even.
para,
for, for the purpose
of, in order to.
por.
by, for, through.
aegun,
according to, or as.
sin,
without.
sobre,
upon.
tras,
behind.
EMPLOYMENT OF PKEPOSITIONS.
2. As prepositions in Spanish have frequently other
meanings than those attached to them in English in the
foregoing list, it will be necessary to treat on the various
significations and fise of each separately.
3. A. This preposition generally indicates the end,
object, or tendency of the action, and besides its general
signification of to and at, is employed before certain
adverbs and adverbial expressions ; as, Vamos a pasear
— Let us go and take a walk. Me volvi a casa — I re-
turned home. Andar d pie, a caballo — To go on foot, on
horseback. Vestirse a la moda — To dress in the fashion.
A consecuencia de eso — In consequence of that. A la
verdad — In truth. It signifies conformity; as, A ley de
Castilla — In conformity with the law of Castile. Afede
caballero — On the word of a gentleman. Instrumentality;
258 PREPOSITIONS. L'lECT. XIX.
as, Se hace a martillo — It is done by the hammer. It is
frequently seen between two numbers of the same value,
and denotes order; as, Dos a dos — Two by two. It marks
the distance between two objects ; as, A tiro de pistola —
Within pistol shot. A veinte pasos de aqui — At twenty
paces hence. It indicates the time when, and the place
-where a thing happens ; as, A la tarde — In the after-
noon. Nos sentdmos a la mesa — We seated ourselves at
table. Motive; as, A causa de su venida — On account of
his coming. (See Pae. 26, and also Government of
Verbs, Lect. 28 )
4. Ante means he fore, or in the presence of; as, Cowi-
parecio ante al juez — He appeared before the judge,
Paso ante mi — He passed before me. It denotes prefer-
ence; as, Nuestro deber es ante todo — Our duty is before
every thing. In the composition of other words it de-
notes priority of time and place ; as, anteayer, the day
before yesterday ; antecdmara, antechamber.
5. Baio denotes suhordination, inferiority of position,
and dependence; as, JBajo tal gohierno — Under such a
government. La puerta estd hajo la ventana — The door
is under the window. Estoy bajo sus ordenes — I am
under his orders. Bajo also signifies under some restric-
tion; as, Que se guarde de venir hajo pretexto alguno —
Let him be careful not to come under any pretext
whatever. The antiquated preposition so, which has
nearly the same signification as bajo, is now scarcely
used except before the words capa, cloak ; color, colour ;
pena, pain, or penalty; pretexto, pretext, and a few others ;
as, So capa de santo — Under the cloak of sanctity. So pena
de muerte — Under pain of death. *
6. Con denotes conjunction; as, Estd easada con la
Marquesa — He is married to the Marchioness. Vino
conmigo — He came with me. When preceded by para it
signifies towards; as, Es muy cortes para con todos —
He is very courteous towards, or to every body. It de-
notes manner ; as, Habla con gracia — She speaks grace-
fully. Means or insti^mentaUiy ; as, Le hirio con una
espada — He wounded him with a sword. United to an
infinitive it gives the latter the value of a substantive ;
as, Con ensenar se aprende — By teaching one learns. In
composition it denotes union ; as, concurrencia, an assem-
LECT. XXX.] PEEPOSITIONS. 259
blage ; confeieraciorif a confederation. (See Pae. 27,
also Government of Yerbs, Lect. 28.)
7. Contra, in its most general signification, is against;
as, Hahla contra mi — He speaks against me. Es contra
la ley — It is against the law. La casa estd contra el
oriente — The house faces the east. In composition it im-
plies an opposite meaning to the word to which it is pre-
fixed ; as, contradecir, to contradict ; contraorden, a coun-
termand.
8. De, besides its most general significations of belong-
ing to, and separation from, has several other meanings.
It is employed after adjectives that express the moral or
physical characteristics of objects; as, Duro de corazon —
Hard-hearted. Largo de piernas — Long-legged. It pre-
cedes nouns denoting the employments, or offices of per-
sons ; as, Va de encargado de negocios — He goes as charge
d'affaires. Trahoja de platero — He works as silversmith :
when, however, the verb ser precedes such nouns, the de
is omitted ; as, Es encargado de negocios ; Es platero. It
is placed before nouns designating the manner or style of
dress ; as, Estaha vestido de militar ; de luto ; de gala —
He was dressed as a military man ; in mourning ; in full
dress. It indicates the passive voice instead of por ; as,
Amado de sus amigos, y odiado de sus enemigos — Beloved
by his friends, and hated by his enemies. It is employed
before nouns in a partitive sense. Probe del Jerez — I
tasted some of the sherry. Envieme Vmd. de aquellos —
Send me some of those. It denotes the materials of which
things are made, and the wse for which things are designed ;
as, casa depiedra, a stone house ; caja de oro, a gold box ;
papel de escrihir, writing-paper ; cahallo de coche, coach-
horse. It indicates different divisions of time ; as, de dia,
by day ; de noche, by night. It sometimes denotes cause ;
as, Lo Jiizo de miedo — He did it through fear. Manner ;
as, Lo hizo de huena gana — He did it with a good will.
It is used with epithets; as. El picaro del muchacho —
The rogue of a boy. Also after certain interjections
expressive of complaint ; as, / Infeliz de mi ! — Ah, poor
me ! / Desdichada de ella ! — Unhappy her ! (See Par.
28, and also Government of Verbs, Lect. 28.)
9. Desde denotes the beginning of time and place : as,
Desde la creacion — From the creation, JJesde Cartagena
260 PBEPOSITIONS. [lECT. XXX.
d Barcelona — From Carthagena to Barcelona. Desde
entonces aca — From that time to this.
10. JSn has various meanings besides its general oneof
in and within, such as into, as, to ; as, La hija de Tdntalo
se convirtio en estdtua — Tantalus' daughter was converted
into a statue. De puerta en puerta — From door to door.
Sirvase admitir este anillo en senal de amistad — Be
pleased to accept of this ring as a token of friendship.
En united to cuanto signifies ivith regard to; as, En
cuanto d mt — With regard to myself. En cuanto a lo
que Vmd. dijo — As to, or with regard to what you said.
(See Par. 29 ; also G-overnment of Verbs, Lect. 29.)
11. Entre. The general meaning of this preposition
is between ; as, Entre los dos — Between the two. Entre
el padre y el hijo — Between the father and son. It like-
wise signifies amongst, as, Entre todos — Amongst all.
12. Hacia, in its general signification, is towards; as,
Voy hacia casa — I am going towards home. It forms an
adverbial expression when preceded by de ; as, Venia de
hacia alH- — He came from that direction.
13. Hasta signifies till, until, even, to, as many as, as
far as, and denotes the end of time, place, or action ; as,
Hasta Lunes — Till, or imtil Monday. Hasta el ano
proximo — Till next year. Tenia hasta mil — He had as
many as a thousand. Voy hasta Segovia — I am going as
far as Segovia. No volvere hasta Mayo — I shall not
return till May. Hasta la vista — Until we meet again.
Hasta in the sense of till, or until, is followed by que be-
fore a verb, except in the infinitive mood ; but in the sense
of even the que is not used ; as, Hasta que vengan — Until
they come. Hasta ellos mismos lo saben — Even them-
selves know it. Hasta sometimes governs infinitives,
giving to the action a future, or conditional signification ;
as, Prohare hasta conseguir — I shall try till I succeed.
No descansare hasta merecerh — I shall not rest till I de-
serve it. Peleare hasta veneer, 6 morir — I will fight till
I conquer, or die.
14. Fara andj?or. Each of these two prepositions
has its peculiar meanings, and their application will be
pointed out in the following observations.
Para denotes the end or purpose of an action, and is
equivalent to in order to, or, for the purpose of; as,
Estudio para aprender — I study in order to learn, or for
LECT. XXX.] PREPOSITIONS. 261
the purpose of learning. It denotes tlie use, intentioriy
benefit, and injury of a thing ; as, La tinta es para escrihir
— Ink is to write with. Esto es para Vmd. — This is for
you. El perjuicio es para el — The evil is for him. It
expresses capacity or incapacity; as, Es hombre para
mucho — He is able to do much. No es hombre para
nada — He is fit for nothing. It points out the place
whither a thing is directed; as Va para Almeria — He is
going towards Almeria. It sometimes specifies a parti-
cular time; as, Estaremos de vuelta para las Pascuas —
We shall be on our return by the holidays. Para qtie
means what for, and in order that; as, ^Para que es
bneno esto? — What is this good for? Para que no fuese
allz-ln order that he might not go there. (See Pak.
30 ; also Lect. 28, Par. 7.)
15. Por denotes motive, cause, or reason, also the
means by which a thing is done ; as, Lo hice por favore-
cerle — ^I did it to favour him. Lo hizo por malicia — He
did it through malice. Agrada por su cortesia— He
pleases by his courteous manner. Lo alcanzo por su
erudicion — He obtained it by his learning. It denotea
instrumentality ; as, El libro fue escrito por el, e impreso
por su hermano — The book was written by him, and
printed by his brother. It signifies, for the sake of; as,
JEdgalo Vmd. por caridad — Do it for charity's sake. It
sometimes means in the place of; as, Obro por el — I act
for him. It denotes distribution; as, Tanto por docena,
por ciento — So much a dozen, per cent. Between two
nouns or infinitives it denotes preference ; as, Casa por
casa, mejor quiero esta que aquella — Of the two houses, I
prefer this. Vivir por vivir, prefiero vivir en mi pais —
If it be for the sake of living only, I prefer to live in my
own country. It sometimes indicates time ; as. Salt por
una hora — I went out for an hour. Por el mea de Mayo
—About the month of May. It is employed in matters
of buying, selling, exchanging, etc. Vendio su caballo por
dos mil reales — He sold his horse for two thousand reals,
I Por cudnto le habia comprado ? — How much did he buy
it for? Cdmbieme Vmd. este baston por aquel — Change
me this stick for that. It sometimes has a distiibutiie
meaning ; as, A un duro por docena, por libra, etc. At
one dollar a dozen, a pound, etc. Un por uno ; letra
opr letra — One by one ; letter by letter. When it pre-
262 PEEP0SITI0N3. [lECT. XXX.
cedes a verb in the subjunctive mood it fe equivalent to
however, or although ; as, For grancU que sea — However
large it may be. It is generally used where though and
by are in English ; as, Pasepor Toledo — I passed through
Toledo. Par descuido — Through inattention. Por
envidia — Through envy. Paso por mi ventana —He
passed by my window. Zo hice por yerro — I did it by
mistake. And in most instances it is equivalent to for,
except where the latter jrqslhq for the purpose of {yfh.\c\i
requires para) ; as, Vengo por Vmd. — I come for you.
Murio par la patrta — He died for his country. Lo tome'
por medico — I took him for a doctor. (See Pab. 3 1 , also
Lect. 28, Par. 7.)
16. Segnn denotes conformity; as Segun mi parecer —
According to my opinion. Lo cuento segun me lo han
contado — I relate it as it was related to me. Segun eso
vamos bien — If that be the case we are well oflf.
17. Sin denotes privation or want; a,8,'Estoy todavia
tin comer — I have not dined yet. Toy sin Vmd. — I am
going without you. It also signifies besides ; as, Llevaba
joy as de diamantes, sin otras alhajas de oro — She wore
diamonds, besides other jewels. There is, however, an
ellipsis in this Spanish phrase, to express which fully
we should say, sin contar, or 6in mencionar otras alhajas,
etc.
1 8. Sohre denotes superiority, both as regards locality
and dignity ; as, El sombrero estd sobre la mesa — The
hat is upon the table. La caridad es sobre todas las
virtudes — Charity is above all virtues. It indicates the
subject on which a work treats, or on which we are
speaking; as Tratado sobre la matemdtica — A treatise
on mathematics. Hablo sobre la educacion — He spoke
on education. It sometimes is used in the place of haciaj
or ccrca ; as Llegue sobre el anochecer — I arrived towards
nightfall. Costo sobre mil ducados — It cost about a
thousand ducats.
19. Tras denotes order of things; as, Tras el padre
vino el hijo — After the father came the son. Tras la
adversidad viene la foriuna — Fortune succeeds adversity.
(See Par. 32.)
20. Besides the foregoing prepositions, there are
many adverbs and adverbial expressions employed aa
LECT. XXX.] PREPOSITIONS. 263
substitutes for prepositions, and when so employed they
are generally followed by d or de. The Spanish language
admits of a great variety of these expressions ; a lew of
these which are in constant use are here given as speci-
mens.
The following require d after them : —
Con respecto a el. With regard to him.
Conforme a la ley. According to the law.
En cuanto a mi. With regard to me.
Junto a la puerta. Close to the door.
Tocante a lo que Vmd. dice. Concerning what you say.
The following require de after them :—
A lo largo del rio. Along the river.
Al derredor de la mesa. Around the table.
Al lado de mi. Next to me.
Aeerca de eso. Concerning that.
Antes del amanecer. Before day-break,
Cerca de la ciudad. Near the city.
Dehajo de la ventana. Under the window.
Delante de mi vista. Before my sight.
Dentro del sombrero. Within the hat.
Dentras de la casa. Behind the house.
Encima del techo. Upon the roof.
Enfrente de la iglesia. Opposite the church.
Fuera de la ciudad. Without the city.
Lejos de mi pais. Far from my country.
For encima del puente. Over, or across the bridge.
21. The same word may sometimes be a preposition,
and at others an adverb, according to the sense in which
it is taken ; for instance, desde is a preposition in Desde
Cadiz d Sevilla— From Cadiz to Seville; and an adverb
in Desde ayer — Since yesterday.
PECULIAR MEANnTGS OP CERTAIN ENGLISH PREPOSI-
TIONS, WITH THEIR CORRESPONDING TRANSLATIONS
IN SPANISH.
22. When English prepositions have other meanings
besides those which constitute their most general signih-
264 PREPOSITIONS. [lECT. XXX,
cation, they must be translated by words corresponding
with those which they stand in the place of: Ex.
About — To run about the streets — Correr por las
calles. He spoke about that affair — Hallo de, or sobre
ese negocio. What are you about ? — Que estd Vmd.
haciendo ? I was about to tell it to you — Estaba para
decirselo a Vmd,
Above — His liberality is above his means — Su
liber alidad pasa d sus medios. It is above my comprehen-
sion— No alcanzo a comprenderlo.
After — He does things after his own fancy — Hace
las cosas d su antojo. I was looking after a friend —
Iba en busca de un amigo.
Against — I set my face against it — Me opuse d ello.
I shall be back against the end of the month — Estare de
vutlta para fijies del mes.
Along — Alovg the shore — A lo largo de la fibera.
Come along with me — Venga Vmd. conmigo.
At. — Are they at home ? — ^Estan en ca^a f I am
at a loss how to act — No secomo determinar. Not at all —
Del todo. He came in at the window— -En</o por la
ventana. I was at Salamanca — Estuve en Salamanca.
He is at dinner — Estd comiendo.
Before — Before my window — Delante de mi ventana.
Before the judge — Ante et jucz.
Behind — He leaves him behind — Le deja en zaga.
You are behind your time — Viene Vmd. tarde.
Beneath — Such actions are beneath a gentleman —
Tales acciones son indignos de nn caballero. Beneath
the mask of hypocrisy — Bajo capa, or so capa de santo.
Beside — He appeared beside himself — Parecia fuera
de St. Beside me — Al lado mio.
Beyond — It is beyond all praise — Excede a toda
olabanza. Beyond my reach — Fuera de mi alcance.
Beyond doubt- Sin duda alguna.
By — By day — De dia. By accident — Por accidente.
Impelled by necessity — Impelido de la necesidad. One
by one — U710 a uno. How did you come by it? — Por
donde le vino a Vmd. f By and by — Luego. By sea—
Por mar. Close by — A la mano.
Down — Down the hill — Cuesta abajo. Throw it
doivn — Echelo en tierra.
IJECT. XXX.] PREPOSITIONS. 265
For. — For my sake — ^Por amor de mi. For fear —
Por miedo. I act for him — Actuo por el. I start to-
morrow for Segovia — Parto manana para Segovia. It
will last for many jeara— Durard por muchos anas. I
bought it for a dollar — Lo compre por un peso. It is
impossible /or me — Me es imposible a mi. As for me —
Fn cuanto a mi.
From. — He did it from fear — Zo hizo de weVc?o. Tell
him frovi me — Digale Vmd, de wt parte. I speak /ro?w
what I hear — ^a6/o por lo que oigo.
In, Into. — In the morning, in the afternoon — Por la
manana, por /a <arc?«. Deficient in intellect — Falto de
intelecto. In consequence of that — A consecuencia de
eso. In accordance with — De acuerdo con. I was in
hopes that it would do — Tenia esperanzas que serviria.
To descend into the garden — Bajar al jardin. They
entered into an alliance — Entraron en alianza.
Near. — Near to the Exchange — Cerca de la BoUa.
Near me — Junto a mi.
Of. — All of us — Todos nosotros. I beg of you — L9
pido a Vmd. To be well spoken of — Tener huena fama.
Of course — Por supuesto. To be ignorant of the fact—
Jgnorar el hecho.
Off. — How far off ia it? — Cuanto distaf Off the
port — Sobre el puerto. Off hand — De improviso. Lift
it q^the ground — Levdntelo del suelo. Take off your
hat — Quitese el sombrero. He carried her off — Se la
llevo. I let him off—Le perdone; le deje ir. I shall
soon leave off — Pronto acabare.
On, Upon. — Keep on your cloak— Quedese con la
capa puesta. He came on Monday last — Vino Lune»
pasado. I met them on the road— Z(9s encontre en el
camino. On that account — Por ese motivo. On this sid©
and on that — De este lado y de aquel. On certain
occasions — En ciertas ocasiones. On the contrary — Al
contrario. On foot ; on horseback — A pie ; 4 caballo.
Go on — Adelante. Rely on me — Dependa Vmd. de mi.
On, or upon my word — Sobre mi palabra. They are not
on terms — No se tratan. He imposed that duty ow, or
upon them — Les impuso esa obligacion. He was looked
upon as a spy — Le miraron como espia. They heaped
many favours upon them — Les colmaron de favores. To
266 PEEPosinoNiL Tlect. xixJ
feed on, or upon hopes — Alimentarse de esperanzas.
Seated on th.e sofa — Sentado en el canape. Come on the
twelfth of May — Venga Vmd. el dace de Mayo.
Over. — The coach ran over him — El cocke le pas6
encima. All over the world — Por todo el mundo. Over
the way — ^Al or del otro lado. It is all over — Se acabo.
Read it over — Vuelva Vmd. a leerlo ; Repdselo Vmd.
There was nothing over — No sobro nada. Give over—
Acabe Vmd.
Out. — Out of fear — De miedo. Out of danger — Fuera
de peligro. Out of doors — Fuera de casa. He is out of
money — Estd sin dinero. Out of order — Descompuesto.
Out of vengeance — Por, or de venganza. She is out of
her mind — Per did eljuicio. Out of curiosity — Por curtb-
sidad. To be out of humour — Estar de mal humor.
KoTJND. — All the year round — Todo el ano. To sail
rmcnd the world — Circunnavegar el mundo. I will come
round to you — Passare a su casa de Vmd, To go round
and round — Ir dando vueltas.
Thkough. — We passed through France — Pasdmos por
Francia, He ran him through — Le atraveso de parte a
parte. I passed through the mob — Pase' por entre la
eaterva. Through {i. e. on account of) him — Por razon
de el. Through (t. e. by means of) him — Por medio de
el. Through envy — Por or de envidia. Throughout the
whole country — Por todo el pais.
To. — From day to day — Be dia en dia. From door to
door — De puerta en puerta. According to appearances —
Segun las apariencias. That is yet to come — Eso estd
aun por venir. This is new to me — Esto es nuevo para
tn{» Secretary to the embassy — Secretario de la emhajada.
A victim to his passions — Victima de sv^ paswnes. Ten
to one — Biez contra uno. To this day — Hasta el dia de
hot/.
Under. — The ship is under sail — El navio estd a la
vela. He is under age — Es menor de edad. Under oath
— Bajo de juramento. It is under its value — Es m^nos
de su valor.
Up. — Up that way — Hacia alld. Are they up? —
g Estan levantados ? Up two pairs of stairs — Al segundo
piso. Let them serve up the dinner — Que suban la
comida. He was taken up — Le positron en cusiodia. To
LEOT. XXX.] PREPOSITIONS, 207
be puffed up with pride — Sincharse de soherhia, I can-
not put up with her — No la puedo aguantar.
With. — They quarrelled with one another — Rineron
entre si. The room is filled with people — El cuarto estd
lleno de gente. He was charged with the crime— Zc
acusaron del delito. Arm yourself with patience — Armese
Vmd. de paciencia. Fraught with danger — Lleno de
peligro. I was struck with her beauty — Me quede sor-
prendido de su hermosura. Endowed with virtues —
JDotado de virtudes. I am not acquainted with her — No
laconozco. I was pleased with his discourse — Me agrado
su discurso,
WiTHEsr. — Within pistol-shot — A tiro de pistola.
Within my reach — A mi alcance. Within a little way
from here — A poca distancia de aqui. It is within a
mile — No llegd a una milla. There is nobody within-^
No hay nadie en casa.
Without. — I came without her — Vine sin ella. With-
out exception — Sin excepcion. Without doors — Fuera
de casa. Without his reach — Fuera de su alcance.
23. There are a vast number of verbs in English that
have certain prepositions affixed to them, and become, as
it were, inseparable from them ; but the prepositions so
used are seldom translated in Spanish, the verb and pre-
position together being construed by a verb alone, corre-
sponding with the meaning contained in both : for example,
to go down, bajar ; to come in, entrar ; to go out, salir ;
togo up.swij'r; to draw out, sacar; to set out, par^jr ; to
fall down, caer; to pull down, derribar; and many more.*
PLACE OF PREPOSITIONS.
24. Prepositions in Spanish always precede the word
which they govern, wherever their situation be in
English: Ex.
^ A quien escribio Vmd ? Whom did you write to f
or, to whom did you write?
Este es el libro de qae This is the book which I
hablaba. spoke of j or, of which I
spoke.
^ Para que lo hizo ? What did he do it for ?
* See the Author's English Grammar for the use of Spaniarda.
268 PEEP0SITI0N8. [lEOT. XXX.
GOVERNITEKT OP PREPOSITIONS.
25. Prepositions govern nouns, pronouns, verbs, and
adverbs. The manner in which they govern nouns and
pronouns has been treated on in the Government of the
Cases, Lect. 8, Par. 1 to 13. With respect to their
power of governing verbs, we have to observe that d,
con, de, en, para, por, sobre, and tras govern verbs in the
infinitive in the same manner as they do nouns. The fol-
lowing rules (which are in accordance with the Grammar
OF THE Academy) will explain their manner of governing.
26. A governs infinitives that denote the end to which
the action of the governing verb is directed ; as Voi/ a
galir — I am going out. Between two infinitives it
marks the distinction in the respective meanings of
their actions ; as, Va mucho de decir a haeer — There is a
great difference between saying and doing. This pre-
position is sometimes elegantly employed before an
infinitive instead of the conditional si, if ; as, A saber yo
eso; a decir verdad; which expressions are equivalent
to. Si yo supiera eso — Had I known that ; Si se ha de
decir la verdad — If the truth is to be told.
27. Con governs infinitives that signify means, mau'
ner^ and instrumentality ; as. Con estudiar se alcanza la
sabiduria — By study we gain wisdom.
28. Infinitives are governed by de, when the time or
season proper for doing any thing is expressed by the
preceding noun ; as, Es hora de comer — It is dinner
hour. It sometimes is equivalent to para ; as, Es fdcil
de digerir — It is easy to digest.
All infinitives, preceded by haber, are governed by de
where a necessity is implied ; as, Ha de venir — He is to
come. Hubo de escaparse — He was obliged to escape.
There are also many other verbs that govern infinitives
with de that cannot be reduced to rule; as, Acabo de
llegar — I have just arrived. Es digno de oir — It is worth
hearing. Es de esperar — It is to be hoped. Debia de ir
— He ought to go.
29. En governs infinitives that do not denote motion;
as, Se ocupa en leer — He occupies himself in reading.
No hay difiouUad en decirlo — There is no difficulty in
saying it.
LECT. XXX.] PREPOSITIONS. 269
30. Para. Infinitives are preceded by para^ that do'
note the end, or purpose of the action of the governing
verb ; as, Trabajo ahora para descansar luego — ^I work
now in order to rest afterwards. Para also expresses
the relative capacity of a person to perform an action ;
aa, Para ser principiante no dibuja mal — For a beginner
he does not draw badly.
31. Por, meaning the end or motive of an action,
governs infinitives like para ; as, Estudio por saber — I
study in order to learn.
32. Sohre and tras^ in the sense of besides, govern
infinitives ; as, Sobre, or tras ser cidpado, todavia es inso-
lente — Besides being guilty he is insolent.
33. With respect to adverbs, de, desde, hacia, hasta^
para, and por^ govern those oi place ; as, JDe aqui a Toledo
— From here to Toledo. Desde alU a Madrid — Thence
to Madrid. Hacia alia — Towards there. Hasta acd —
As far as here. Fa para Cadiz — He is going to Cadiz.
^Por donde salio ? — Which way did he go out ? Por
aqui; por alU — This way ; that way.
34. Por and para may govern all those of time, except
ya; as, Por temprano que fui — However soon I went.
Lo dejaremos para manana — ^We will leave it for to-
morrow. Hoy, ayer, and manana are also governed by
con, de, desde, and entre ; as. Con hoy hace ocho dias —
It makes eight days with to-day. De hoy en quince dias
— This day fortnight. Desde ayer — Since yesterday.
Entre manana y pasado — Between to-morrow and the
day following.
35. All those of manner, except asi, may be governed
by por ; as, Por redo que le llame — However loud I called
him. Por mal que le suceda — Whatever iU may happen
to him. Bien and mal may be governed besides hypara
and entre ; as, Ni sirve para bien ni para mal — He is fit
for nothing. Entre bien y mal — Between well and bad.
Quedo and redo may likewise be governed by de ; as,
Bar de quedo, de redo — To strike softly, hard. Those
ending in mente are not governed by prepositions.
36. Those of quantity may be governed by por and
para ; as, 8e tiene por muy sabio — He considers himself
very wise. Por poco que coma — However little he may
eat. Poco and mucho may likewise be governed by a, de^
270 DEPOSITIONS. . [lECT. XXX.
and en; as, u£ poco que ande — However little he may
"Walk. De poco se queja — He complains of a very little.
Los excede a todos en mucho — He exceeds them all by far.
37. Those of comparison by a, entre, para, and por ;
as, Iba a mas andar — He was going at the greatest speed.
Entre mas y menos — Between more and less. No sirve
para mas — He is fit for nothing else. Por mucho que
hable — However much he may talk. Mas and menos may
also be governed by con, de, entre, sin, and sobre. Mejor
and peor by a, de, and en ; as, Con mas brillante efecto^
With a more brilliant effect. Sobre mas 6 menos — A
little more or less. Be peor en peor — worse and worse.
38. Of those of order ^ antes, and despues are governed
by de, desde, and para ; as, De antes lo sabia — I knew it
formerly. Desde antes lo pense — I thought so before.
Queda para despues — It remains for by and by. Para
antes de comer — For before dinner.
39. The affirmative adverb si, the negative no, and
the adverb of doubt acaso, are governed by por ; as, Por
81 6 por no — "Whether it be so or not. Si por acaso
tucediere asi — If perchance it should happen so.
EXERCISE ON PREPOSITIONS.
Heman Cortes fought on horseback, assisting with his
pelear socorrer
troops the greatest emergencies,and carrying with his lance
tropa aprieto llevar lanza
terror and devastation into the enemy. True history
• estrago ■ verdadera
leaves no virtue without its praise, nor vice without a
dejar loor
reprimand ; to everything it gives its true value and
reprension valor
place : it is a witness against the wicked, and the reward
lugar testigo malo abono
of the good ; a treasury and deposit of great virtues and
tesoro deposito
LECT. XXX.] tEEPOSITIONS. 271
deeds. Fame is of [such high] value amongst mortals,
hazana fama tanto aprecio
that we cannot with reason despise it, since it is a sure
aborrecer seguro
means for undertaking great acts of virtue. Let us
medio emprender hecho
contemplate man issuing from the hands of nature, and
contemplar salir
entering by successive degrees into the necessities which
entrar sucesivo grado necesidad
the weakness of his own eidstence exposes him to. She
fragilidad ser exponer
does not sing badly for a beginner. I shall remain
principiante permanecer
here till the summer. After passing through Segovia, I
pasar
went towards Madrid. He wrote on different subjects.
asunto
He has been out of place since he was dismissed from
empleo despedir
court. After this time there will come a better. W©
corte tiempo
will fight till we conquer or die. Our duty is before every
pelear veneer deber
thing. What do you inquire for? Whom do you
preguntar
inquire for ? That is what I referred to. Did he speak
about that ? I found him at home, at breakfast. Moved
hallar mover
by compassion. Leave off tormenting yourself. On your
atormentarse
account and his. Out of pity. Through envy. The
motivo piedad envidia
first rail-road established in Spain was that from Bar-
[camino de hierro] establecer
celona to Mataro, about the year 1848.
272
00KJUKCTI02(&
TlECX. XT^XTt
LECTURE XXXI.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS.
1. Conjunctions are either simple or compound.
Simple conjunctions consist of one word, and sometimes
of one letter only ; as, si, m, ^, etc., if, nor, and, etc. The
compound consist of two or more words ; as, ast que,
fuera de que, etc., so that, besides that, etc. The follow-
ing are the conjunctions employed in Spanish : —
Conjunctive.
Y or 6, And.
que, that.
Disjunctive.
6 or Uf or, either,
ni, tampoco, nor, neither,
ora, ya, bien, whether, or.
fiiquiera,
at least.
when.
though,
although.
Adversative.
mas, pero, moreover, but
cuando,
aunque,
bienque,
mas que,
si bien,
dado que,
siendo que, whereas.
no obstante, . .-, ,
, ' \ nevertheless,
gmembargo, i 1,1 v I
.*=''/ although, yet
comoquiera, > 1 o »./
/\ ' j however ,not-
' ^ ^ i ) withstanding?
a pesar de, / ^
amenos que, unless.
emDero \ ^^*' ^^^'
^ * ( however.
no sea que, lest.
eiuo, but.
Conditional.
if, whether.
sea que, bien, whether,
cuando, when, though.
81,
como.
Causative.
Porque,
pues,
pues que,
ya que,
puesto que,
!becau8e,why,
for.
since, then.
since.
Bestrictive.
no mas que, 1 only, except,
sino, j but.
pues,
por tanto,
con que,
asi que,
puesto que,
supuesto que,
otrosi,
Contimiative.
then, since,
therefore.
so.
«o that.
> since.
besides.
LEOT, XXXI.] CONJUNCTIONS. 278
Conclusive.
p^rque? ji" order that
de Buerte que, so that.
Comparative.
como, as.
asi, thus, so.
tal como, such as.
segun, according i
asi como, just as.
que, than.
2. Conjunctive conjunctions are those which unite the
several words or members of a sentence together : Ex.
Yo y el ir^mos, I and he will go.
Es cierto, y 61 lo sabe. It is certain, ««5 he knows it.
Note. — The conjunction y changes into e before a
word beginning with i or hi : Ex.
Es malo e ingrato. He is wicked and ungrateful.
Padre e hijo. Father and son.
Que serves to connect the sense of the governing verb
with the verb governed : Ex.
Dijo que ellas vendrian. He said that they would
come.
Quiere que yo vaya. He wishes that I should go.
3. The disjunctive conjunction o denotes an alternative,
or distinction between two things ; ni marks the second
or subsequent branch of a negative proposition : Ex.
O callese, 6 vayase. Either be silent, or begone.
El libro 6 la carta. The book or the letter.
No es para mi m para 4L It is neither for me nor for
him.
JVi is also frequently used in the first member, in the
sense of neither : Ex.
Yo ni me amo ni te amo. I neither love myself nor
thee.
Note. — Either or neither, preceded by a negative, is
translated tampoco : Ex.
Yo no s6, ni Vmd. tampoco. I do not know, nor do you
either.
Ni ^1 tampoco. Nor he neither,
NoU. — The conjunction 6 is changed into t« whan the
274 CONJUNCTIONS. [lECT. XXXI.
word following it "begins with o or ho ; as, Uno u otro —
One or the other. Muger u homhre — Woman or man.
4. Adversative conjunctions denote some opposition
or contradiction in the second proposition as regards the
first: Ex.
Me dijo que lo sabia, pero, He told me that he knew it.
or mas parece que no es but it appears that it is
verdad. not true.
Salio, no oJs^anie que estaba He went out, although he
indispuesto. was ill.
5. Conditional conjunctions denote some condition or
supposition: Ex.
To ir^, como 61 venga. I will go provided he come,
^lyo te llamare, responde- If I should call thee, wilt
r4s? thou answer?
6. Causative conjunctions express the cause or reason
of a thing : Ex.
Descanso porque estoy can- I rest because I am tired.
sado.
Lo hare, pues que lo manda. I will do it, since he desires
it.
7. Restrictive conjunctions confine the proposition
within certain limits : Ex.
No traiga Ymd. sino dos. Bring only^ or but two.
8. Continuative conjunctions indicate the continuation
of a sentence : Ex.
Ya podemos ir, puesto que "We may now go, since they
nos dan licencia. permit us.
9. Comparative conjunctions denote a relation or
parity between two objects : Ex.
Ast como el alma anima al Just as the soul animates
cuerpo, asi la imitacion the body, so imitation
da alma a la poesia. gives life to poetry.
10. Conclusive conjunctions denote the object, end,
or motive of an action : Ex.
Lo dijo a fin de que cono- He said it in order that they
ciesen su determinacion. might know his determi-
nation.
LECT. XXXI.] CONJUNCTIONi. 275
Le he dado el libro para I have given him the book
que aprenda su leccion. that he may learn his
lesson.
11. Besides the foregoing conjunctions, there maybe
formed a variety of expressions that answer the same
end as conjunctions ; as como quiera que^ however ; Juera
de que, besides ; por euanto, whereas ; por mas que, how-
ever, etc.
12. The conjunction st, besides its general meaning of
if and whether, has several other significations in familiar
language, as will be seen by the following quotations
from the comedies of Moratin,
Don Eoque. — i Si sera el lloro por esto ? — ^I wonder if
this is the reason of her weeping? {.El Veijo y la
Nina. Act 2, Scene 9.)
Don Eoque. — Es verdad. Siestoy loco! — It is true.
I must be mad ! (Ibid. Act 3, Scene 4.)
PAScuAii. — Si la he visto a la ventana. — Why, I have
seen her at the window. {El Baron. Act 2, Scene 10.)
Don Claudio. — Si yo lo dije ; si Perico m^ ha metido
en esta danza — I have already said it ; it is Peter who
has get me into this mess. {La Mogigata. Act 3,
Scene 8.)
Lucia. — Si no me quereis oir: si es locura declarada
la que teneis — It is that you wont listen to me : it is that
you are positively mad. (Ibid. )
Don Claudio. — Bigo hien : si no hay cosa que yo haga
que no se tilde y se rina — I am right : for (because) there
is nothing that I do that is not censured and blamed.
(Ibid. Scene 14.)
13. It frequently happens with conjunctions, as with
adverbs and prepositions, that the same word may be-
long to more than one part of speech ; for instance, qu$
is a conjunction in Ordeno que se fuesen — He ordered that
they should go ; but it is a relative pronoun in, El hombre
que llama — The man that calls.
14. The English conjunction but, preceded by a nega-
tive, is generally translated sin6; but if the verb be
repeated in Spanish, it is preferable to use pero or mas,
instead of sino; as, Nunca sale sino cuando hace buen
tiempo — ShQ never goes out but in fin© weather. N«
276 OONJT7NC3TION8. [lECT. XXXI.
vinOf hoi/, pero or mas vendrd manana — He did not come
to-day, but he will come to-morrow.
But is also translated pero, or mas, when it is not pre-
ceded by a negative; as, Ire\ pero, or mas, no puedo
quedarme mucho tiempo^-l will go, but I cannot stay
long.
When but is used in the place of yet, it is also trans-
lated pero. or mas ; as, No camine muy deprisa pero, or
mm ller/ue' a tiemoo — I did not walk very fast, but, or yet,
I arrived in time.
PECULIAR MEANINGS OP CERTAIN ENGLISH CONJUNC-
TIONS, WITH THEIR CORRESPONDING TRANSLATIONS IN
SPANISH.
15. There are several conjunctions in English that
are frequently used as substitutes for other words ; these
conjunctions are generally rendered in Spanish by the
words which they stand in the place of, as follows.
As, meaning when, is translated cuando ; as. We saw
them as we were going in — Los vimos cuando entra-
bamos.
But, meaning if it were not, is translated si no ; as,
But for me, they would have killed him — Si no fuera por
mi, le habrian matado. I would go, but that I think it
useless — Yo iria, si no creyera quefuese inutil.
But, meaning only, is translated solo, or no mas que ;
as, I have but two to finish — Solo me quedan dos para
acabar. I went but once — No/wz' mas que una vez.
But, meaning except, is translated sino, or mas que
after a negative and after an interrogative pronoun ; and
menos when not preceded by a negative ; as, He speaks
nothing but nonsense — No habla sino, or mas que ton-
terias. Who would think so but you? — Quien creyera
tal sino Vmd. f Everybody knows it but he — Todos lo
saben menos el,
ITAeMer, meaning t/, is translated SI,- as, S&y whether
you will come or not — Diga Vmd. ai quiere venir 6 no.
Whether, meaning be that, is translated que; as,
Whether he come or not — Que venga 6 que no venga.
Whether, meaning that, is also translated que; as, I
doubt whether she knows it — Dudo que lo sepa.
LECT. XXXI.] CONJUNCTIONS. 277
However y employed before an adjective, is translated
in the following maimer ; as, However attentive they are,
and however kind they may be — Por atentos y bondadosos
que sean ; or, no obstante lo atentos que son, y por
bondadosos que sean.
Why and because are translated /jorj-we; as, I do nou
know why — No se porque. Because I could not — Porque
no pude.
Fovy meaning because, is translated porque; as, Yoa
must take care of yourself, for if you do not, you will
be ill — Es menester qv^ se cuide Vmd., porque si no, se
enfermard.
Whei^eas, meaning it being so that, is translated siendo
asz que ; as. Whereas certain individuals appeared before
me, etc. — Siendo asi que parecieron ante mi ciertos
individuos.
Whereas, meaning on the contrary, is translated de lo
contrario ; as, You must obey the orders ; whereas, if you
transgress them, you will suffer the consequences — Es
menester que obedezca Vmd. a las ordenes; de lo contrario,
81 las traspasare, sufrird las consecuencias.
Either and or are both translated 6 ; as. Either I am
right, or he is — 0 yo tengo razon, 6 el la tiene.
Neither and nor are both translated ni; as. Neither
promise nor act without thinking — Ni prometas, ni ohrea
sin pensar,
EXERCISE ON CONJUNCTIONS.
Gold and silver are precious metals. Neither he nor
precioso
she can refuse. She is virtuous and industrious. The
translations or works of which you speak. Why did
traduccion obra
you not come ? Because it was raining. Since there is
no remedy, I suppose that I must submit. I did so
remedio suponer someter
because I could not help it. However that may be,
remediar
278 CONJUNCTIONS. [lECT. XXXI*
he never remains but when he likes ; but that matters
quedarse querer importar
not. You may either take this or that. He never view^
mirar
things but [on the wrong side]. It is not only better but
al reves
cheaper. You must attend, notwithstanding [aU that]
barato atender cuanto
you have said. I will go, provided you come with me.
Since we are men, let us act as such. What is to be
obrar
done then? He cannot, nor can you either; neither
can I. I cannot point out to thee thy soul, which is
sen alar *
neither visible, nor is it corporeal ; but I shall
■ tiene cuerpo
endeavour to make thy very body teach thee the
procurer ensenar
dignity of thy soul. However probable it may appear,
parecer
I doubt whether it be true. Whether he know it or
not. It is wide enough, but too short. Morality
ancho corto
consists in the practice of virtue ; thus, if we would be
ejercicio
moral, we must be virtuous. As the vigour of a
vigor
morbid appetite increases, and as [it makes itself]
desordenado apetito crecer se va haciendo
master of man, so does the use of his reason, and its clear
senor uso
cmd limpid light decrease and diminish. Nothing
limpia descrecer amenguarse
LBCT. XXXII.] INTERJECTIONS. 279
but innocence can give us a pure conscience. Commerce
comercio
is the true regulator of the power and importance of
regulador
nations ; whether [it be considered] in relation to
se le considere
their wealth or with respect to their political
(las riquezas de estas]
influence. Prosperity is a state full of danger ; so that
estado peligro
we should content ourselves with the middle state.
mediocre
LECTURE XXXII.
INTERJECTIONS.
1. Some grammarians have divided interjections into
different classes, according to the various emotions which
they express; but as the same interjection very frequently
expresses different affections, they cannot, with any
degree of precision, be arranged into classes. Some of
them, however, are more limited in their meaning.
2. A\ ay-, and 0, are employed indifferently, to denote
emotions of grief, joy, indignation, jest, and admiration ;
as, / Ay, que pena ! — Alas, what grief ! / Ah, que des-
gracia I — Ah, what a misfortune ! / 0, que desdicha ! —
Oh, what wretchedness ! / Ay, que gozo ! — Oh, how
delightful! ; Ah, que alegria ! — Oh, what joy! / 0, que
felicidad! — Oh, what happiness !
3. Ce, ha, he, and ola serve to call attention. He is
also sometimes used to denote that one has not under-
stood what has been said to him, and means. What did
you say ? Ola is sometimes an interj ection of admiration.
Ha, besides serving to call the attention, denotes that
one has recollected what he had forgotten ; as, Ha ! ya
280 INTEBJECTIOira. [leCT. XXXIL
me acuerdo — Oh ! now I recollect. Chtto / and chiton /
impose silence, and are equivalent to hush I Ea is used
to excite courage ; as, Ea ! vamos, dnimo I — Come ! cheer
up, courage ?
4. When adjectives are employed as interjections,
the preposition de is put between them and the noun or
pronoun following ; as, / Desdichada de mi I — Unhappy
me ! / Infeliz de mi hijo ! — Oh my unhappy child !
The interjection ay, in the sense of woe or alas, is
followed in a like manner by de before nouns or pro-
nouns referring to persons; as, / ^v de ti ! — Woe is
thee ! / ^y de ellos ! — Alas for them ! Ay de mi iajo I
Alas, my poor son !
5. There are a variety of other terms and expressions
that may be used as interjections; such as, Que lastima /
— What a pity ! / Bios mio / — My God ! / Bien /—
Well ! / Hola^ poco a poco ! — Hallo, gently ! / Q^llb ver-
gilenza ! — For shame ! / Ciudado ! — Take care ! / Otra^
Otra / — Encore ! / Quita / — Pshaw ! / Hurra / —
Hurrah ! / Viva I — Huzza !
6. Ete^ behold, is used with personal pronouns in the
objective case; as, Eteme aqm f — Behold me here!
/ Etehs alU que vienen I — ^Behold I or lo I they are
coming !
APPENDIX.
OF THE FIGURES OF SYNTAX,
{From the Grammar of the Academy.)
Figures of syntax are certain deviations from the
natural construction, which are allowed for the sake of
brevity, energy, or elegance of expression. They consist
sometimes in altering the order and position of words ;
sometimes in omitting^certain words, or adding others ;
and sometimes even m apparent infringements on the
rules of syntax. These figures are called hiperbaton
(hyperbaton), which signifies inversion; elipsis (ellipsis),
which means deficiency y or curtailing ; pleonasmo (pleo-
nasm), which "means superfluity i and silepsis ^syllej^sis),
which means /a/s6 concord*
HYPERBATON.
In the following examples, the figure hyperhaton^ or
the inversion of the syntactical order, is conspicuous : —
DichosGS los padres que Happy the parents that
tienen buenos hijos. have good children.
Feliz el reino donde viven Happy the kingdom in
los hombres en paz. which men live in peace.
Acertadamente gobierna el Hegovernswell who knows
que sabe evitar los de- how to prevent crimes.
litos.
In the first example, the adjectives dichosos and buenos
are placed before the nouns, contrary to the rule which
generally requires them to be put after. [This figure of
syntax has already been alluded to in Lect. 8, on the
Construction of Nouns, and in Leot. 10, on the Situa-
282 APPENDIX.
tion of the Adjective.] In the second example, the ad-
jective feliz is also put before the noun, and the verb viven
before its nominative homhres. And in the third, the
adverb acertadamente is put before the verb gobiema, by
which it is governed.
The foregoing examples acquire by these inversions
more elegance than they would have, were they con-
structed in the natural order ; and greater energy, be
cause the clauses beg:in with those words that it is in-
tended should appear the most striking in the sentence,
and call the attention first. And though the use of thib
and other figures of speech may sometimes appear arbi-
trary, it is generally founded on some reason.
ELLIPSIS.
Ellipsis is a figure that allows certain words to be
omitted in a sentence (provided that obscurity do not
arise from the omission), the insertion of which would in
many cases deprive it not only of brevity but of energy
also. This figure is of constant use, and may affect every
part of speech ; since as we aim at expressing our thoughts
as concisely as possible, we omit those words which are
not absolutely necessary to make ourselves understood.
Almost every familiar expression is elliptical ; take, for
instance, Buenos dias — Good day. Muchas gracias —
Many thanks. The first, to be complete, should be, Bue-
nos dias tenga Vmd. ; or, Le deseo a V.ad. los hienos dias —
I wish you a very good day ; and the second, Le doy a
Vmd. muchas gracias — I give you many thanks.
This figure is not less frequent in the grave style than
it is in the familiar, for wherever we open a book we are
almost sure to meet with it. The following sentence
from a classic author may be given as an instance.
Un vasallo prodigo se de- A prodigal vassal ruins his
struye 4 si mismo : Tin own self : a prince, him-
principe, d si, y 6, sus self and his vassals.
vasaUos. — (Saavedra y Fajabdo.)
In the second member of this clause the adjective
prodigo and the pronoun se are omitted once each, and the
APPENDIX. 283
verb destruye twice ; and to be complete it sbould run
thus : Un pnncipe prodigo se destruye a si, y destruye
d sus vasallos.
PLEONASM.
This figure, which, means redundancy, is vicious
when words are superfluously added without necessity,
and useful when employed to give greater strength and
clearness to the expression, and leave our hearers no
doubt whatever as to the precise meaning of what we
wish to convey.
When we say, To lo m por mis ojos — I saw it with my
own eyes ; Yo lo escribi de mi propia mano — I wrote it
with my own hand, we make use of pleonasms, because,
strictly speaking, the words por mis ojos — con mi propia
manOf are not necessary in the construction of the
sentence ; but no one will doubt the degree of energy
which these additional words give to the expressions.
With the same end are redundant pronouns employed
in reference to the same person, as we have seen in
Lect. 14, Par. 18 ; as, a mi me dicen — they tell me: te
llama a ti — he calls thee: a el le digeron — they told him:
le hablaron a ella, no a el — ^they spoke to her, not to him.
SYLLEPSIS.
This figure is employed when we sometimes make
words agree, not precisely with one another, as they
stand in a clause, but with some other words or idea
understood ; as when in Spanish the adjective is made
to agree, not with the attributes of the persons of dis-
tinction to which they refer, but with the persons them-
selves : Ex. Vuestra Majestad esjusto — Your Majesty is
just. Su Alteza es muy hondadoso — Your Highness is
very kind. Here, though the nouns majestad and
alteza are of the feminine gender, the adjectives justo
and bondadoso are not made to agree with them, but
with the nouns rey, and principe, understood. The
same would occur with excelencia, excellency, senoria,
lordship, etc. — See Lect. 9, Par. 13.
284
APPEI^DIX,
AW "ELBY METHOD OP CONTERTING A GBEAT NUMBER OP
ENGLISH AND LATIN "WORDS INTO SPANISH BY A
SLIGHT ALTERATION IN THEIR ORTHOGRAPHY.
[Observe that in maldnff these transpositions, no consonant, ex-
cept e, », r, is to be doubled in Spanish.]
Many nouns and adjectives ending in English in the
following syllables, are rendered Spanish by altering
their terminations, thus ; —
aet, into aeto;
ant . . ayite
9ry . . ario
ate . . ado .
ent , . ente
\e . .
teal .
id. .
to us .
tm .
ist. .
ive .
ory .
our .
y ' '
nee .
ey . .
tion .
ty. .
tor .
ee.. .
thy
my
tco .
ico .
icto
ioso
. ismo
. ista
. ivn ,
. orio
. or .
. ia .
. ncia
. eta ,
. cion
. dad.
. dor .
. eia .
. tia .
. mia
as, abstract,
. . constant,
. . alimfenlary,
. . consulate,
. . accident,
. . laconic,
. . dramatical,
. . conflict,
. . ingenious,
. . barbarism,
. . conformist,
. . conclusive,
. . declama-
tory,
. . ardour,
. . academy,
. . Constance,
. . clemency,
. . attention,
. . humanity,
. . administra-
tor,
. . justice,
. . apathy,
. . economy.
abstracto,
constante,
alimentario,
consulado,
accidente,
lac6nico,
dramkticc,
conflicto,
ingenioso,
barbjirismo,
conformista,
conclusive,
declamato*
rio,
ardor,
academia,
constancia,
clemencia,
atencion,
humanidad,
administra-
dor,
justicia,
apatia,
economia,
compact,
distant,
dictionary,
delicate,
negligent,
poetic,
economical,
convict,
prodigious,
laconism,
deist,
productive,
observatory,
honour,
geology,
province,
eflBcacy,
nation,
simplicity,
senator.
compact©.
distante.
diccionario.
deiicado.
negligente.
poetico.
economico.
con vie to.
prodigy' oso.
laconismo.
deista.
productive.
observatorio.
honor.
geologia.
provincia.
eficacia.
nacion.
simplicidad.
senador.
clemenre, clemencia.
antipathy, antipatia.
academy, academia.
Nouns terminating in sion ars spelled alike in both
languages; as, confusion, infusion, profusion.
Words written in English with ph, change these
letters into /, in addition to ^e alterations abovo
named; as, Philosophy, ^/osofz'a • phosphoric,/os/oV2co.
Several English nouns ending in tude, are made
Spanish by dropping the final e ; as. Amplitude, ampli-
tud ; multitude, mtdtitnd.
Nouns derived Irom the Latin or Greek ending in
APPENDIX.
285
sis, terminate in the same letters in Spanish ; as, Meta-
morphosis, metamorfosis ; paralysis, paral'isis.
Several adjectives ending in a/, are spelled alike in
Spanish and English; as, legale nominal, proverbial.
Adjectives derived from the Latin ending in bilis, ter-
minate alike in Spanish and English; as, culpable,
inviolable, probable.
Several English verbs are turned into Spanish by
altering their terminations as follows : —
ate,
into
ar ; aS
, abrogate,
abrogar,
imitate.
imitar.
duce
di(cir .
. conduce,
•onducir.
produce,
producir.
fy
fear .
. amplify,
amplificar.
justify.
justificar.
lute
buir .
. attribute,
atribuir.
contribute
, contribiur.
vert
vertir .
. controvert, controvertir, divert,
divertir.
est
estar .
. detest,
detestar,
manifest.
manifestar.
ist
istir .
. consist.
consistir,
desist,
desistir.
tnit
mitir .
. admit.
admitir.
permit.
permitir.
end
ender .
. defend.
defender.
offend.
ofender.
are
arar .
. compare.
comparar.
declare.
declarar.
ize
tzar .
. economize
, economizar.
moralize,
moral izar.
fer
ferir .
. confer.
conferir,
prefer,
preferir.
tract
traer .
contract.
contraer.
retract.
retraer.
eive
ibir .
. conceive,
concibir,
perceive.
percibir.
Several English adverbs ending in ZZy, formed from
adjectives, are made Spanish by changing these final
letters into mente ; as, Dramatically, dramdticamente ;
identically, identicamente.
Some admit an / before the termination mente ; as.
Grammatically, gramaticalmente ; totally, totalmente.
Those formed in English from adjectives ending in le,
changing the e into y, are formed in Spanish by adding
mente to the adjective ; as, culpable, culpably, culpable-
mente ; probable, probably, probablemente.
The following alterations will convert several Latin
words into Spanish ; namely, by changing —
au, into o ; as, ArRXiM, oro, gold ; tattrtjs, toro, bull.
... e ... INFIRMO, enfermo, infirm ; timok,
temor, fear.
o ... tie ... FORTE, fuerte, strong ; nosteo,
nuestro, our.
u ... o ... TJNDA, onda, wave; juvenis, j6ven,
youth.
286 APPENDIX.
ag tnto dad ... trobitas, probidad, "prohity ; siM-
PLiciTAS, simplicidad, simplicity.
MsandMwi, into o; as,TACiTUS, tdcito, tacit; doctus, docto^
learned ; momentum, momer/itOf
moment.
chy into c, or qu ; as, charus, caro, dear ; chorus, coro,
chorus ; cherubim, querubin,
cherubs ; chirurgicus, quirur-
gico, chirurgical.
/, into h ; as, fumus, humo, smoke ; facere,
hacer^ to do.
m ... n ... LYMPHA, linfa^ lymph.
t ... (?, or £:,... AVARiTiA, avaricia, avarice; mi-
litia, milicia, militia.
tor ... dor ... amator, amador, lover; senator,
senadory senator.
X ... s ... AUD AX, aurfaz, audacious; fallax,
falaZy fallacious.
Many Latin words beginning with «, followed by
another consonant, have an e prefixed to the s in Spanish ;
as SVLENDOR, esplmdor, splendour ; scribo, escribOf I
write.
Many Latin infinitives are made Spanish by dropping
the final e ; as, amare, amar, to love ; ardere, ardery to
burn ; venire, venir, to come.
Several adjectives ending in ens are formed into
Sprjiish by ente ; as, prudens, prudentey prudent ;
sapiens, sapiente, sapient.
Others ending in His, drop the final ts ; as agilis,
agii, nimble ; FACiLis,/aci7, easy; utilis, util, useful.
Many Spanish substantives and adjectives are formed
from Latin ablative cases in the singular : as, domino,
DominOy Lord; gradu, gradoy degree; teisti, tristey sad;
FELICE, felizy happy.
And from accusative cases plural; as, dominos,
dominos ; gradus, grados ; tristes, trisies ; felioes,
felices*
APPENDIX* 287
MAKXER OF ADDRESSING PERSONS IN SPANISH, AND THE
TITLES COMMONLY USED WITH PERSONS OF RANK.
Senor and Don. — These titles, which are equivalent
to Mr. in English, are prefixed to the names of individuals
in the third person, and are employed as follows : —
Senor admits of a feminine and a plural termination,
with their diminutives, and is employed before baptismal
or surnames; as, Senor Carlos, La Senora de Gomez,
Los Senoritos Perez, La Senorita Perez.
Don has a feminine termination which is Dona ; but
no plural termination. It is never used immediately
before surnames, but is employed either before baptismal
names alone, or before these together with the surname.
It is politely used either singly, or coupled with Senor,
in addressing, or in speaking of persons whom we
respect ; sa, Don Juan, Senor Don Andres, El Senor Don
Francisco Alvarez, Dona Mariay La Senora Dona Fran-
cisca de Jimenes.
In addressing young ladies. Dona is used with their
baptismal names, giving a diminutive termination to
them ; as, Dona Clarita, Dona Isabelita.
In polite society, Senor is not used alone, either before
baptismal or surnames ; but Don should be employed
before baptismal names as above described, or, Senor
Don, which is still more respectful ; and with regard to
surnames, if we address, or speak of a gentleman, instead
of Senor, the word Caballero is prefixed ; as, Caballero
Hernandez, El Caballero Ramirez. Sometimes the pos-
sessive pronoun is employed before the words Senor Don ;
a style, however, only sanctioned by intimacy ; as, Mi
Senor Don Alejandro. Mi Senora Dona Teresa.
Don and Caballero are titles of rank, equivalent to
Sir or Knight : nevertheless they are employed in polite
conversation with persons who have no rank,
TITLES OF RANK.
Yuestra Majestad. Your Majesty.
Su Majestad, His or Her Majesty.
Vuestra Al'.eza Eeal. Your Eoyal Highness.
288
APPENDIX.
Su Alteza BeaU
Vuestra Senoria,
noria, or Usia.
6u Senoria.
Vuestra Santidad.
Su Santidad.
Vuestra Ilustrisima,
Su Ilustrisima.
Vuestra Excelencia, or Vue
cencia.
Su Excelencia.
His or Her Hoyal ITIgh-
ness.
Vuese- Your Lordship, or Your
Ladyship.
His Lordship, or Her
Ladyship.
Your Holiness,
His Holiness.
Your Grace or Honour.
Hie, or Her Grace or
Honour.
Your Excellency.
His or Her Excellency.
As a respectful way of spealcing of a person of title,
Spaniards sometimes form the title into an adjective in
the superlative degree (except Majestad, Alteza^ and
Senoria). The adjective is then used in the first member
of the sentence, and the title in a subsequent member ;
as, El Ilustrisimo SeTior Bon Pedro de Aguilar llego esta
manana, y su Ilustrisimo fue recihido por el Gohernador —
The Most lllustnous Lord Don Pedro de Aguilar arrived
this morning, and His Grace was received by the
Governor. Also, El Excelentisimo Seno-r General dio
orden qiie no hide sen salva a su Excelencia — His Excel'
lency the General gave orders that they should not salute
His Excelltncif,
LIST OP ABBREVIATIONS ]\IOST COMMONLY USEC
IN SPANISH.
A A.
A.O.
A.D.
A^M.
Art.
Arzbpo.
Autores, 6 Altezas, Authors, or Highnessej*.
A no Cristiano.
6 comun,
Ano Domini,
Agosto,
Ano Mundo,
articulo,
Ai-zobispo.
Anno Ohristi.
Anno Domini.
August.
Anno MundL
article.
Archbishop.
APPENDIX.
289
A'or®-
Arrobag,
Q", or 25 lbs.
b. or V.
vuelta,
turn over.
^mo pe
Beatisimo Padre,
Most blessed Fatlier.
B'
Bacbiller,
Bachelor of Arta.
Cap.
Capitulo,
Chapter.
Cap"
Capitan,
Captain.
Comp* or C*
Compaiiia,
Company.
Cor*«
Corriente,
Current.
eta
Cuenta,
Account,
DD.
Doctores,
Doctors.
dho. dha.
dicho, dicba,
ditto, or said.
DiC^^ or 10'«
Diciembre,
December.
Dn. or D.
Don,
Mr.
Dna.
Dona,
Mrs.
D'
Doctor, 6 deudop,
Doctor, or debtor*
Eii°
Enero,
January.
Ex"%Et°«
Excelentisimo, ma
t, Most Excellent.
Eebo
Eebrero,
February.
fho. fha.
fecbo, fecha.
dated.
fol.
folio,
folio.
Er.
Eray, 6 Erey,
Brother of a religioui
order.
Gen>
General,
General.
H'
Haber,
C"" or Creditor,
lb.
ibidem,
Ibid, ditto.
Ilmo nnui
Ilustrisimo, ma.
Most Illustrious.
J. c.
Jesu Cristo,
Jesus Christ.
Lib.
Libro,
Book.
lib^ qr lbs.
libras,
pounds.
lin.
linea,
line.
M.P.S.
Muy Poderoso
Most Powerfa!
Senor,
Lord.
mrs.
maravedis,
the smallest Spanidi
m-a*
muchos anos,
com.
many years.
MS.
Manuscrito,
Manuscript.
MSS.
Manuscritos,
Manuscripts.
Nov™ or 9^
Noviembre,
November.
nro. nra.
nuestro, ra,
our.
N.B.
Nota bene,
N.B.
N.S.
Nuestro Senor,
Our Lord.
N.S«
Nuestra Senora,
Our Lady.
290
APPENDIX.
n', or ntim.
ndmero,
number.
ObPO.
Obispo,
Bishop.
Ocf* or 8"
Octubre,
October.
on. on'
onza, onzas,
ounce, ounces.
orn.
6rden,
order.
P.D.
Posdata,
Postscript.
P'
para,
for.
p% or ?
per,
per, or for.
P%-
pagina,
page.
par.§
pdrrafo,
paragraph.
Q.D.G
Que Dios guarde
Whom God preserve.
q'
que.
that, what.
q"
qui en.
who.
E», K^-
Keal, RealeB,
Royal.
rl.rs.
real, reales,
real, reals, (the 20th
part of a doUar).
Eev°"
Eeverendisimo,
Most Reverend.
BeV^"
Reverendo,
Reverend.
S.orS°
San, 6 Santo,
St. or Saint.
S.M.
Su Majestad,
His, or Her Majesty.
S.A,R.
Su Alteza Real,
His, or Her Royal
Highness.
s.s*
Su Senoria,
His, or Her Ldshp.
s. s**
Su Santidad,
His Holiness.
s.n^
Su lUustrisima,
His Grace, or Lord-
ship, Her Gh-ace, etc.
Sr. or S*>'
Senor,
Sir, or Mr.
gre.
Senores,
Sirs, Messrs., or Gen-
tlemen.
S"
Senora,
Madam,Lady, or Mrs
gr«
Senoras,
Mesdames, or Ladies.
Set" or ?'•
Setiembre,
September.
ger«>o
Serenisimo,
Most Serene.
Serv'
Servidor,
Servant.
Big*®
siguiente,
following, next.
ggmo pe
Santisimo Padre,
Most Holy Father.
Super**
Superintendente,
Superintendent.
Ten*«
Teniente,
Lieutenant.
torn, or vol.
tomo, 6 volumen,
volume.
tpo.
tiempo,
time.
v., 7% or Ven« Venerable,
Venerable.
V.M.
Vuestra Majestad
, Your Majesty.
V.A.
Vuestra Alteza,
Your Highness.
APPENDIX.
291
Your Blessedness.
Your Excellency.
for example.
You, or Your Grace.
Your Lordship, or
Ladyship.
Your Holiness.
Your Grace, Lord-
ship, or Ladyship.
bullion.
volume.
V.B* Vuestra Beatitud,
V.E, Vuecelencia, 6
Vuecencia,
v.g. verbi gracia,
v., Ym., or Vuesamerced 6
Vmd. Usted,
V.8. Vuesenoria, 6
Usia,
V.S. Vuestra Santidad,
V.S.I. Vuesenoria, 6
Usia Ilustrisima,
vn. vellon,
vol. volumen,
vro. vra, vuestro, ra, your.
Xptiano. Christiano, Christian.
Xpto. Cristo, Christ.
Xptobal. Cristobal, Christopher.
Ordinal Numbers are abbreviated in the following
manner P° 2^° S"* 4*° 5*° 6*" T™** 8^° 9°« 10™*, and so
on till 20™°, then 21"° 22^°, and so on till 30™°, 40™",
etc. The final o is changed into a for the feminine
gender, and an s is added to form the plural number ;
as, 1'* 2^" 5*°* etc. Sometimes they are abbreviated
thus— 1° 2° S'' 4% etc.
Besides the foregoing abbreviations, there are several
others employed in letter writing, as will be seen in the
following
FORMS OF EPISTOLARY CORRESPONDENCE.
The peculiarities of the Spanish epistolary style con-
sist principally in the manner of beginning and ending
a letter ; for instance, in addressing persons of different
classes of society, except those of title, the letter begins
with, Mui/ Senor mio, or Muy Senor nuestrOj which ex-
pressions are equivalent in their import to Sir, or JDear
Sir. The first would be used by one gentleman address-
ing another ; the second by a plural number addressing
one person ; May Senor es mios, by one person addressing
a plural number; and Muy Seftores nuestros, by more
than one person addressing a plural number, each cor-
responding with Gentlemen, or Dear Sirs.
292
APPENDIX.
In addressing ladies, Senora would be substituted for
Senor ; mia for mio, and nuestra for nuestro. These ex-
pressions are most generally abbreviated thus : Muy Sr,
mio; Muy Sr. nro; Muy Sres. mios; Muy Sres nrbs ;
Muy Srd. mia; Muy Srds. mias; Muy Srd. nrd; Muy
Srds. nras.
In the body of the letter, m ap^^' (su apreciable), or
su est'^'* (su estimada), or su favoi^'^ (su favorecida) —
carta (letter) being understood — are equivalent to your
favour^ or your esteemed letter.
With reference to the date of a letter, Yours of the
2** Inst ; 4** uW ; 8"^ of May, etc., are translated, Las de
Vmd. del 2 Cort' (corriente) ; 4 del pp"^ (proximo pa-
eado) ; 8 De Mayo, etc.
At the conclusion of a letter, the following forms, or
others equivalent, with o^e or othor of the sets of initials
appended to them, are g^ifihjjiftljr employe^ : viz.
Nos repetimos a la dispo- Wjreiterate our services to
fiicion de Vmd.
C. M. B.
(Cuyas manos besamos.)
Perez, Hebmanos.
MandenVms. cuantogusten
a S. S. S.
{Sus seguros sei'vidores.)
Q, S. M.B.
( Que sus manos besan.)
Vicente Lopez y C*
Siendo cuanto se me ocurre
decirle por hoy, mandeme
Bin reserva ; interin
B. L. M. de Vmd.
{Beso las manos de Vmd.)
J. M. MiRASOL.
Se repite a las Srnsde Vmd.
su at^** y sg'' serv' {atento
y seguro servidor) y
B. S. M.
(Besa sus manos.)
Pedro Ouvares.
yi^, whose hands we kiss.
Perez, Brothers.
Command at pleasure your
faithiul servants, who kiss
your hands.
Vincent Lopez & Cf
This being all that occurs
to me to say at present, I
beg you will command
me freely ; meanwhile /
kiss your hands.
J, M. MiRASOL.
Your humble and faithful
servant again places him-
self at your orders, and
kisses your hands,
Peter Oltvares.
APPENDIX 293
In a more friendly style, a letter may begin with May
Sr. y amigo mio — My dear Sir and friend : Ap^^ Sr. tnio
— My valued Sir : Muy ap^^ Srd — My dear Lady: con-
cluding with, Mande Vmd. con toda franqueza d s\k
invariable amigo y S. S. — Command with freedom your
unalterable friend and faithful servant. Es cuanto se le
ofrece d su af^ amigo y S. S. — This is all that occurs to
your affectionate friend and faithful servant. Dios
guade su vida los m' a' (muchos anos) que desea su muy
reconocido amigo y servidor —May God preserve you
many years : your grateful friend and servant.
In a very familiar style, a letter is begun in the fol-
lowing manner : Mi ap^^ amigo — My esteemed friend.
Mi muy querido, or estimado amigo — My very dear friend.
Querido Francisco — Dear Francis : concluding with, que-
ddndome todo tuyo af^ — Remaining affectionately yours.
De tu constante amigo que te aprecia — From your constant
friend, who esteems you. Soy como siempre su agradecido
e inalterable amigo que dtveras le estima — I am your ever
grateful and unalterable friend, who truly appreciates you.
Esquelas, notes, are also written in Spanish, as in
English, in the third person ; for instance, El Sr. N. N.
presenta^ or ofrece sus respetos, or cumplimientos al Sr.
Dn. M. M. y le hace saber que, etc. — Mr. N. N. presents
his respects, or his compliments, to Mr. M. M., and
begs to acquaint him that, etc.
El Capitan B. B. tiene el honor de saludar al Ex"^^ Sr,
General D. D., y en contestacion a la esquela de su Ex'^
de hoy participa muy respetuosamente a su j&rc*^'" que, etc. —
Cap" B. B. has the honour of presenting his respects
to his Excellency Gen^ D. D., and in reply to His
Excellency's note of this day, begs most respectfully to
acquaint His Excellency that, etc.
El Conde de L. besa las memos a la Duquesa de R.^ y
tiene el honor de hacer saber a su Ilus""* que, etc. — Count
L. presents his profound respects to the Duchess of R.,
and has the honour to inform her Grace that, etc.
La Marquesa de B., saluda muy carinosamente d la
Condesa de Z., y suplica a su Senoria quCj etc. — The
Marchioness of B. presents her kind love to th©
Countess of Z , and requests her Ladyship, etc.
394 APPENDIX.
The date of a letter is done in the following manner :
Madrid y Z de Mayo de ISiS—Londres Enero l^' de 1853;
and of a note, Li'ines 5 de Agosto — Jueves por la manana
24 de SeV^ ; and the superscription as follows :
■ Sr. Dn. Juan de Aguilares — Toledo.
Sres. Dn. Fran"* Scares Hermanos y C — Mdlaga.
Sr. Diia. Josefa de Peralta y Miranda, Calle nueva.
No. 5.
Al Caballero Fuente Mayor — Plaza Sn. Juan.
Al Ex""" Sr. General S. P.
Al II*"" Sr. Marques de L. L.
Al la n""* Sra. Condesa de M.
OF SPANISH FAMILIAR AND COMPLIMENTAET
PHRASES.
The first salutation among Spaniards is ordinarily
Tenga Vmd. muy huenos dias — Good day to you ; which
expression is used from the earliest part of the morning
till two or three hours after meridian ; from which time
till dark, Bvenas tardea — Good afternoon, is employed ;
and from candle-light until the following morning,
Buenas noches—Goodi night, both on entering a room
and on taking leave. Observe that these expressions
are always used in Spanish in the plural number.
In greeting a lady, the first expression most fre-
quently made use of is, A los pies Vmd. Seiiora, which
means literally, Madam, at your feet. The lady's reply
to which is generally, JBeso a Vmd. la mano, caballero ;
literally, / kiss your hand, Sir. Both these expressions
imply a polite respect for the persons to whom they are
addressed.
. To enquire after another's health, the expressions
mostly used are, Como lo pasa Vmd. ? or, Como estd Vmd.
Caballero, or Senora ? — How do you do ? And the reply
would be, Medianamente bien, or perfectamente bien, para
servir a Vmd. — JVliddling well, or perfectly well, at your
Bervice. Aai, asi, or tul cual: y Vmd. como lo pasaf
APPEKDIX. 295
— So, SO ; and how do you do ? Sin novedad d la dis-
posicion de Vmd. This expression, sin novedad, one of
the most polite, and most frequently employed, has no
equivalent in English. Literally translated it is, without
novelty; that is, without any alteration or change; and
means that the health of the person inquired after con-
tinues very well. Gentlemen in greeting each other fre-
quently employ, as respectful salutations, the following
expressions : Servidor de Vmd. caballero. — Your servant,
Sir. A la orden de Vmd. — Your most obedient. JBeso d
Vmd. la mano — I kiss your hand. A more familiar salu-
tation in passing each other is, Agur, agur — Good by.
Vaya Vmd. con JDios — Adieu, or, God be with you.
The usual phrase for introducing one person to the
acquaintance of another is, Senor Don S. tengo el honor
de presentarle al Senor Don V. — M^. S., I have the
honour of introducing Mr. V. to you; to which the reply
is generally, Caballero, celehro la ocasion de e&nocer d
Vmd. — Sir, I am happy of the opportunity of making
your acquaintance ; or Reconozcame Vmd. por un servidor
myo — I am much at your service.
The most usual expressions for asking or requesting
are, Tenga Vmd. la hondad de darme — Have the goodness
to give me. Hdgame Vmd. el favor de dedmie — Do me
the favour to tell me. Sirvase Vmd, de, or tenga Vmd. la
complacencia de — Have the kindness to. Quiere Vmd.
tener la hondad, or la complacencia de ?— Will you have
the kindness to? And for returning thanks : Milgracias,
or muchisimas grades — Many thanks. Se lo agradezco d -y
Vmd. infinito — I am very much obliged to you. Le
devuelvo injimtas gracias — I return you many thanks. Se
lo agradeceria deveras — I would feel truly thankful to
you.
To describe the state of the weather, the yerh hacer
with a noun, is employed in Spanish, instead of the im-
personal verb to be, with an adjective, used in English;
as, Hace frio — It is cold. Kacia color — It was warm.
JSa/rd buen tiempo pronto — It will soon be fine weather.
Si acaso Meiere mal tiempo — In case the weather should
be bad. E'ace un tiempo variable — The weather is un-
Bettled.
To express that one feels cold, warm, afraid, ashamed,
296 APPENDIX.
hungry, thirsty , etc., instead of the verb to he, used in
English with an adjective, the verb te7ier must be em-
ployed in Spanish with a noun; as, Teyigo frio — I am
cold. Tenia calor — I was warm. Ttenen miedo — They
are afraid. Tiene verguenza — She is ashamed. No tengo
hamhre — ^I am not hungry. The same verb is also em-
ployed in Spanish to denote a person's age ; as, Que edad
tiene f — What age ia he ? Tiem viente anos — He is
twenty years old.
NOTICE.
Considering the in sertion of Con versational Dialogu ca,
Proverbs, etc., misplaced in an elementary work, tlio
author has not appended them to this Grammar. The
annexing a few lists of words and familiar dialogues
would only serve to increase the size and price of the
book, without being of much utility to the learner. More-
over, how many are there that apply themselves to the
study of a foreign language for the sole purpose of read-
ing and comprehending the works written in it? To this
class of learners dialogues would be of little avail To
those who learn a foreign language with the view of ap-
plying it immediately to practice, lists of words in most
common use, and conversational dialogues and familiar
phrases on the most usual topics, judiciously compiled,
and displayingthe force and elegance of the idioms of the
language in which they are written, may be of much
utility after a course of application to tlie rules of Gram-
mar. With this view the author has published, separately,
a Manual, in Spanish and English, which contains abun-
dant lists of words properly classed, and a copious variety
of complimentary and conversational dialogues, an exten-
sive collection of Proverbs and Idioms, and comparative
Tables of Weights and Measures : the whole forming a
pocket companion of much usefulness to the student of
either language.
AfP£NDIZ« 2d7
BEADING LESSON EOE PEACTISING SPANISH
PEONUNCIATION.
OALIDADES DEL TALENTO ORATOEIO.
El que pretende d un tiempo ensenar, mover y deleitar,
que es el oficio del orador, que conocimiento no es
menester que tenga del corazon humano, de su propio
idioma y del espiritu del siglo en que vive ? Que gusto
para presentarsus conceptos en un semblante agradable?
Q\i6 estudio para ordenarlos del mode que liagan la mas
viva impresion en el animo de los oyentes ? Que discerni-
miento para distinguir las circunstancias que deben
tratarse con alguna extension de las que, para ser senti-
das, bastales solo ser manifestadas ? Que arte en fin
para hermanar siempre la variedad con el orden y la
claridad ?
El hombre elocuente huye de la aridez del estilo
didactico, porque no basta que sea magnifico, alto y solido
un pensamiento si no es felizmente expresado. La her-
mosura del estilo solo consiste en la claridad y colorido
de la frase, y en el arte de exponer las ideas. Asi pues
hay gran diferencia entre el escritor elocuente y el
escritor elegante. El primero se anuncia con una
elocucion animada y persuasiva formada de expresiones
valientes, en^rgicas y brillantes, sin dejar de ser
ajustadas y naturales. El segundo declara su pen-
samiento con nobles y galanas frases, formadas de
expresiones cultas, fluidas, y gratas al oido.
El escritor elocuente, como sea su fin mover y per-
suadir, se sirve en el discurso de lo vehemente y sublime,
dedicandose sobre todo a la fuerza de los terminos, a la
grandeza de las imagenes y al orden de las ideas. Y el
elegante, como aspira a deleitar, solo busca la gracia de
la elocucion, esto es, la hermosura de las palabras y la
armonica coordinacion de la sentencia.
298 APPENDIX.
Puede un escritor ser diserto, es decir, puede hacer un
discurso fdcil, puro, claro, elegante y aun esplendido, y
con todo no ser elocuente, per faltarle el calor y la ener-
gia. El discurso elocuente es vivo, animado, vehemente y
politico ; quiero decir, hiere, eleva, arrebata, domina y
suspende el animo. Aei que, suponiendo en un hombre
facundo, nervio en la expresion, elevacion en los pensa-
mientosy calor en los afectos, basta para hacer un escritor
elocuente.
El arte oratoria, como observa un autor de mucho
ingenio, consiste mas que en otra cosa, en un estudio
reflexivo de los mejores modelos, y en un continue
ejercicio de componer y de comparar sus d^biles ensayos
con la perfeccion de los originales ; ejercicio que hace
fructificar el trabajo, mas que una ostentacion de reglas
la mayor parte arbitrarias.
Dos cosas parece que concurren para formar un
orador, la razon y el corazon ; aquella para convencer,
y este para mover y persuadir. Sobre estas dos dis-
posiciones naturales se alianza la verdadera elocuencia,
como el 4rbol en sus raices.
Sin embargo, los buenos oradores son muy pocos,
porque son tambien muy raros los hombres dotados de
aquella penetracion, extension y esquisito juicio necesa-
rios para discernir lo verdadero y hacerlo evidente ;
porque en fin son muy raras aquellas almas delicadas que
sientan interiormente la impresion de los objetos de sus
meditaciones, y que puedan traspasar al corazon del
oyente las afecciones de que estan poseidos.
Del modo de ver las cosas depende en gran parte la
fuerza 6 debilidad en sentirlas, y por consiguiente en
expresarlas. Las ideas adquiridas por una sosegada y
tibia reflexion en el retiro de un estudio, son menos
vivas y acaloradas que las que nacen de la vista y con-
templacion de este teatro del mundo. Seria pues un
prodigio hallar a un ciego de nacimiento, elocuente.
Los objetos grandes prestan elocuencia a los ingenios
sublimes ; pues vemos que Descartes y Newton, que no
fueron oradores, son elocuentes cuando hablan de Dios,
del tiempo, del espacio y del universo. En efecto todo
lo que nos eleva el espiritu, 6 nos engrandece el animo,
es materia propia para la elocuencia, por aquel placer
AI^PEITDIZ. 299
qne sentimos de vemos grandes. Tambien, y por la
misma causa, todo lo que nos anonada ante los ojos de
nuestra consideracion, es objeto digno de la gravedad
oratoria ; pues, que cosa mas capaz para levantar nuestro
espfritu bumillandole, que el contraste de nuestra pe-
quenez con la inmensidad de la naturaleza creada ?
La verdadera elocuencia necesita del auxilio de
nuestras ciencias y artes liberales. Cuenta ante todas la
gramdtica, que tiene mas obra que ostentacion, y es
fundamento del arte de bien decir, pues sin ella seriamos
siempre nines. De la logica saca el metodo y fuerza del
raciocinio; de la geometria el 6rden y enlace de las
verdades ; de la historia el ejemplo y autoridad de los
insignes varones; de la jurisprudencia los ordculos de las
leyes ; de la filosof ia moral el conocimiento del corazon
del hombre y de sus pasiones ; y de la poesia el colorido
de las imagenes y el embeleso de la armonia. — (OAPMAmr
— Filosof ia de la Elocuencia.)
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